Chapter 1 Discovering Sociology Sociology Systematic and scientific study of human behavior social groups and society Sociological Imagination Quality of mind that provides an understanding of ourselves within the larger context of society Positivism The use of observation comparison experimentation and the historical method to analyze society Auguste Comte Coined term sociology Positivism Wrote Positive Philosophy Harriet Martineau Translated Comte s work Introduced Sociology to England Herbert Spencer Social Darwinism Survival of the fittest Free and competitive marketplace w out gov interference Karl Marx Haves and have nots Conflict perspective Emile Durkheim Concerned with social order Social solidarity Mechanical Rural Organic Urban Max Weber Ideal Type concept Value free sociologists Verhesten Ideal Type conceptual model typology constructed from the direct observation of a number of specific cases and representing the essential qualities found in those cases Pure Sociology study of society in effort to understand and explain the natural laws that govern its evolution George H Mead Meaningful symbols make society possible Meaningful Symbols sounds objects colors events that represent something other than themselves and are critical for understanding social interaction ex language Definition of the Situation if people define situations as real they are real in their consequences The Looking Glass Self self concept relies on how he she is perceived by other members of society Dramaturgical Analysis Uses the analogy of theater to analyze social behavior Impression Management used to communicate favorable impressions Labeling Approach People attach various labels to certain behaviors individuals and groups that become part of their social identity and shape other s attitudes about them Structural Functionalist Perspective views society as a system of interdependent and interrelated parts Balance harmony cooperation Manifest Functions anticipated or intended consequences of social institutions Latent Functions unintended or unrecognized consequences of social institutions Conflict Perspective views society as composed of diverse groups with conflicting values and interests competition and conflict Marxian approach determined by economics and social class Neoconflict Approach social conflict viewed as necessary functional social process C Wright Mills promoted conflict perspective for analyzing distribution of power in the U S The Power Elite Feminist Theory studies analyzes explains social phenomena from gender focused perspective Chapter 2 Doing Sociology Methodology rules and guidelines followed in sociological research Gain knowledge through experience tradition faith authority science Inductive Reasoning specific observations to a general understanding Deductive Reasoning begins with general then gets to specifics Conceptual Definition defining a concept though the use of other concepts Operational Definition specifies how a concept is measured Validity extent to which a technique accurately measures Reliability consistency of measurement Proposition statement that interrelates two or more variables Exploratory Research attempts to answer question Why Descriptive Research attempts to answer questions What and How Explanatory Research What How and Why Evaluation Research measures effectiveness of program Secondary Analysis analysis of existing data Experimental Design cause and effect relationship between variables Intervening Variables come between independent and dependent variables Hawthorne Effect subjects behavior is influenced by the fact that they are being studied Ethnographic Interview qualitative technique where the researcher talks with people in an effort to learn as much as possible Triangulation use of multiple techniques to gather or analyze research data Content Analysis Research that examines and analyzes communications Symbolic Interactionist Micro level approach meanings people attach to human behavior Ethnographic interviews participant observations case studies Functionalist Perspective Macro level Emphasis in manifest latent functions Conflict Perspective Macro level quantitative research methods Social diversity conflict change alienation Chapter 3 Culture and Society Glocalization interdependence of global and local resulting in unique outcomes in different geographical areas Society people who live in a specific territory interact share culture Sociocultural Evolution process in which societies grow more complex in terms of technology social structure knowledge Pastoral Society depends on domestic animals Horticultural Society depends on domesticated crops Agrarian Society depends on crops animals agriculture Sapir Whorf Hypothesis language of each culture does not merely influence how people understand the world it shapes perceptions Beliefs assertions about the nature of reality seen as common truths in society Values shared ideas about what is socially desirable Norms expectations and rules for proper conduct that guide behavior of members folkways mores laws taboos Folkways informal rules expectations that guide people s behavior table manners proper appearance etiquette Mores salient norms people consider essential to proper working society moral significance murder adultery etc Laws formal rules enacted and enforced by power of state Taboos prohibitions against behaviors that most members see as unthinkable cannibalism Sanctions penalties or rewards societies use to punish deviance Enthnocentrism tendency to evaluate customs of other groups according to one s own cultural standards Cultural Relativism asks that we evaluate other cultures based on their standards not our own Subcultures groups that share many elements of mainstream culture but maintain distinctive customs norms values based on age gender wealth sexual orientation occupation Countercultures rejects conventional standards of behavior of majority and provides alternatives political and social protests skinheads Multiculturalism movement that encourages respect and appreciation for cultural differences had a huge effect on American education Eurocentrism belief that European cultures are superior Afrocentrism emphasizes preeminence of African American culture in human development places African culture above all others High Culture upper class conflict theorists argue that this is far superior Folk Culture opposite of high culture includes art and dance Popular Culture tastes and