Social Group: two or more people who identify with and interact with one another.Ex. Couples, circles of friends, churches, clubs, businesses, neighborhoods, and large organizationsGroups contain people with shared experiences, loyalties, and interest“We”People with a status in common, such as women, African Americans, homeowners, millionaires, college graduates, and Roman Catholics, are NOT a group but a category.Crowd: loosely, unrelated collection of people (i.e. college lecture hall)Primary and Secondary GroupsSocial groups are of two types based on their members’ degree of personal concern for one anotherPrimary Group: a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships. (personal orientation)spend a lot of time togetherengage in a lot of activities togetherknow one another pretty well, and show concernpersonal and tightly integratedirreplaceable and uniqueThe family is every societies most important primary groupSecondary Group: is a large and impersonal social group whose members pursue a specific goal or activity. (goal orientation)Characteristics opposite to primary groupWeak emotional connectionLittle personal knowledge of one anotherEx. Students enrolled in same course at universityInclude more people than primary groupsShort livedFormal Organizations: large secondary groups organized to achieve their goals efficiently.Ex. Corporations, government agenciesWe rely on formal organizations to carry out a societies taskAmitai Etzioni identified (3) types of formal organizations distinguished by reasons people participate in themUtilitarian Organizations: an income driven group for which a person is paid for their efforts.Ex. Business, government agency, school systemMatter of individual choiceNormative Organization: people join not for income, but to pursue some goal they think is morally worthwhile.Voluntary associationsEx. Community service groups, political parties, religious organizationsPeople in high-income nations are likely to join these groupsCoercive Organization: involuntary membership, people are forced to join as form of punishment (prisons) or treatment (crazy hospitals).Special physical features like locked doors, barbed wire, supervised by security.Forced isolation to change a persons attitudes and behaviorOrigins of Formal OrganizationsDate back to thousands of year ago when elites who controlled empires relied on government officials to collect taxes, conduct military campaigns, and build structuresEarly organizations lacked ability:to travel and communicate quicklyStore/gather informationTraditional cultures were in placeTradition: values and beliefs passed from generations to generationMakes society conservative and limits efficiency and ability to changeRationality: way of thinking that emphasizes deliberate, matter-of-fact calculation of the most efficient way to accomplish a particular task.Pays little attention for the past; open to changeRationalization of society: the historical change from tradition to rationality as the main type of human thought.Sentimental ties give way to rational focus on science, technology, and bureaucracy.Characteristics of BureaucracyBureaucracy: an organizational model rationally designed to perform task efficiently.6 Key Elements to the ideal bureaucratic organization:Specialization. assign individuals highly specialized jobsHierarchy of offices. Arrange workers in vertical ranking system; chain of commandRules and Regulations. Guide operationTechnical competence. Officials have the tech. competence to carry out their duties. Impersonal evaluations for employmentImpersonality. Efficiency and rules are put above personal beliefsFormal, written communications.Bureaucratic organizations promote efficiency by carefully hiring workers and limiting unpredictable effects of personal taste and opinion.Organizational Environment: factors outside an organization that affect its operation.Ex. Technology, economic and political trends, available workforce, current events, and other organizations.The Informal Side of BureaucracyThe idea bureaucracy regulates every activity, but human beings are naturally creative and resist regulation.Informality results in cutting corners and allows for necessary adaptations to be madeEmotional involvement in Leadership personalityInformal communication methods, such as grapevines or word of mouthPersonalization of work environmentProblems of BureaucracyCan dehumanize and manipulate us, and present a possible threat to democracy.Bureaucratic Alienation: Impersonality of the system fosters efficiency and keeps the system free of personal expression.Formal organizations create alienation by reducing human beings to a “cog”Bureaucratic Inefficiency and Ritualism: focusing on rules and regulations to the point of undermining an organization’s goals.“red tape”Bureaucratic Inertia: the tendency for organizations to perpetuate themselves. Keep going despite having reached the intended goal.Oligarchy: the rule of the many by the fewStrict hierarchy of responsibility resulted in high organization efficiencyFew leaders in charge of the resources of an entire organizationDistance officials form public accessScientific Management: the application of scientific principles to the operation of a business or other large organization.(3) Steps1. Managers carefully observe the job performed by each worker, identifying all the operations involved and measuring the time needed for each2. Managers analyze data collected, to increase worker efficiency3. Management provides guidance and incentives for workers to do their jobs betterLead to greater productivity and efficiencyGreater social inequality between workers and managementInequality in Bureaucratic OrganizationBig business discriminated against women and other minorities and didn’t hire on basis of competencePattern of Privilege and ExclusionsThe number of high positions for minority was lowExcluding these groups ignores the talents of this groupSocial isolationOpen vs. closed (dead-in) organizationsThe “Female” AdvantageWomen offer a special set of skills in the workforceWomen executives typically:Value communication skills and share information more easilyAre more flexible, greater freedom to employeesEmphasize interconnectedness of all organizational operationsThe Japanese Work Organization1980’s most popular car model was the Honda Accord, Japanese modelJapanese organizations reflect the nations strong