Chapter 3MEMORYMemory Processes Involve:• Encoding: • Storage• Organizes• Alters• RetrievalEncodingGetting information into memory*There are ways to improve information encoding*RetrievalGetting information out of memory*Context specific*Mood specific*Recall is more difficult than recognitionMemory Systems1. Sensory: information from environment Sensory Memory2. Short Term3. Long TermSensory Memory Contains Exact Replica of Sensory Information Ionic Memory: The icon; a visual stimuli  Echoic Memory: The echo; sound  Very Brief Retention of Image or SoundShort Term Memory Role of Selective Attention Brief storage of small amounts of information Memories can be encoded as images or sounds Sensitive to interruption Working MemoryShort Term Memory How much information can STM hold? Miller:  7 Bits Plus or minus 2 Bits What is a “Bit” amount, item or piece of informationShort Term Memory Aid Chunking Remembering larger groups of information bits It’s harder to remember the 5 letters Than the word MONEYRehearsal How long do ST memories last? Not long BUT – you can prolong a memory by repeating it Maintenance Rehearsal So… how long IS it?? About 18 seconds Elaborative Rehearsal Giving the material meaningLong Term Memory Permanent storage for knowledge Contains everything you know about the world Nearly limitless The more you know, the easier it is to add new memories Memories stored by meaning NOT sound Dual MemoryConstructing Memories As new memories are stored, old ones are updated, changed, lost, or revised Constructive Processing Filling in gaps in memory Problems with eye witness testimonyOrganizing Memories Memory Index Not alphabetical Organized by rules, images, categories, symbols, similarity, meaning Network Model Ideas further apart, takes longer chain of associations to connect themTypes of Memory Procedural Memory Skill Memory _ Declarative __ memory Fact Memory1. Semantic Memories Names, seasons, dates Virtually immune to forgetting2. Episodic Memories Autobiographical record of personal experiences• Life eventsImplicit Versus Explicit Memories Explicit Memories Memories of _past experiences that are _consciously__ brought to mind Recall and recognition Implicit Memories Lie outside of conscious awareness Do not know the memory exists Letters on a keyboard Can be revealed with cues Eidetic Imagery  Photographic memory Occurs when a person has visual images clear enough to be scanned for at least 30seconds Most common in childhood 8 in 100Extraordinary Memory Photographic Memory May not be able to distinguish between important facts and trivia Maybe a learned extension of _normal___ memory Strategies for Remembering Mnemonics (memory strategies)  Rehearsal Chunking Relate meaningRajan MahadevanRecites Pi to 30K digits Recites 50 random numbers backwardsTip of the tongue Partial memories are common Tip of the tongue Memory is available but not quite retrievable Feeling of Knowing: the ability to know beforehand that you will be abel to recall the informationMemory Tasks Recall Recognition-identify previously learned information RelearningRecalling MemoriesWhat are the names of the seven dwarves?Cued RecallReminder of information we could not otherwise recallRecall vs. RecognitionSerial Position Effect The order in which something is memorized is importantBread, apples, soda, ham, cookies, rice, lettuce, beets, mustard, cheese, oranges, ice cream, crackers, flour Hardest to recall words in the middle Last items still in STM First are remembered because they entered an “empty” STM and were rehearsedPrimacy Vs. Recency• Primacy Effect: first part of a series• Recency Effect: last part of a seriesRecognition Previously learned information is correctly identified Multiple choice tests Photographs Pretty accurate Line ups Hard if distracters are similar to the right answer Be careful on exams!Forgetting Most memories are lost right after memorization Ebbinghaus: Tested his own memory Nonsense syllables Curve of Forgetting Rapid at first, then slows downMeaningless items are about 9x harder to remember!When Encoding Fails: Penny exampleEncoding Failure The main reason we forget is because information does not get encoded in the first place Writing things down Also affect memories of peopleMemory Decay Memory Traces (brain activity) decay over time Lose sensory memories ST memory, leaky bucket Disuse: Infrequent retrieval  BUT – some unused memories are never forgotten, while some areCue Dependent Forgetting Missing memory cues:  Cue dependent learning State dependent learning Emotional dependent learningInterference* Retroactive InterferenceDisruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old informationInterference* Proactive InterferenceDisruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new informationRepression Vs. Suppression Repression Motivated Forgetting unconscious and passive Suppression Active, conscious attempt to put something out of mindFlashbulb Memories Images frozen in memory  Personal tragedy Other emotionally significant events Very detailed Not always accurate Confidence in themAmnesia*Retrograde Amnesia* Inability to remember events prior to the onset of amnesia*Anterograde Amnesia* Inability to form new memoriesWhich Type of Amnesia?Movie examples1. Bourne Identity: Retrograde2. Momento: Anterogade Ways to improve memory Recitation Provides feedback that can let you know your progress Rehearsal Mentally review information Look for connections between things and assign meaning Selection Be selective about what you learn Organization Summaries Whole vs. Part learning Whole is better, expect with extremely long, complicated information Cues (links) Overlearn Sleep  Hunger