PSYC 1315 1st Edition Lecture 18 Outline of Last Lecture I Tips for memory II Tips for encoding III Tips for rehearsing IV Tips for retrieval Outline of Current Lecture I Cognition II Thinking a Concepts b Steps in problem solving c Moral dilemmas d Problem solving obstacles III Reasoning a Decision making i Biases b Critical thinking c Creative thinking Current Lecture I Cognition the way in which information is processed and manipulated when remembering thinking and knowing These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor s lecture GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes not as a substitute II a Cognitive Psychology seeks to explain observable behavior by investigating mental processes and structures that we cannot directly observe Thinking involves manipulating information mentally by forming concepts solving problems making decisions and reflecting in a critical or creative manner a Concepts refers to mental categories that are used to group objects events and characteristics i Ex fruit as a concept includes oranges apples etc ii Concepts are important for four reasons 1 Concepts allow us to generalize 2 Concepts allow us associate experiences and objects 3 Concepts aid memory by making it more efficient so that we do not have to relearn what to do in every situation 4 Concepts provide clues about how to react to a particular object or experience iii Prototype Model 1 Emphasizes that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept they compare the item with the most typical or ideal item in that category 2 Birds generally sing fly make nests But there are exceptions to every prototype model what about penguins and ostriches b Steps In Problem Solving i Problem solving involves finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available 1 Find and frame the problem Recognizing a problem is the first step to find a solution People who invented the computer telephone saw problems that everyone else was content with 2 Develop good problem solving strategies a Subgoals intermediate goals or intermediate problems that we devise to help us reach a final goal or solution Ex rough draft turned in a week before due date b Algorithms strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem Involves formulas instructions and the testing of all possible solutions Ex cooking or following directions using GPS c Heuristics shortcut strategies that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer Unlike algorithms do not always lead to a clear answer 3 Evaluate solutions What constitutes success Completing the paper getting an A receiving positive feedback from the instructor etc 4 Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time III c Moral Dilemmas i Brain scans show that contemplating the footbridge or lifeboat dilemma activated brain areas known to respond to emotions including parts of the prefrontal cortex and cingulated gyrus ii In summary we seldom think of things logically but often allow our emotions to guide these decisions We wouldn t want to push someone in front of the trolley because we can relate to that experience and wouldn t want to cause pain to that individual After we have already decided we then find logical explanations d Problem Solving Obstacles i Fixation 1 Involves using a prior strategy only and failing to look at a problem from a fresh perspective ii Functional fixedness 1 Occurs when individuals fail to solve a problem because they are fixated on a thing s usual function 2 Ex image you are asked to hammer a nail but you are only given a nail and no hammer What would you do iii Maier String Problem 1931 Reasoning is the mental activity of transforming information to reach a conclusion Involves weighing arguments applying rules of logic and coming up with sound conclusions a Inductive Reasoning bottom up processing involves reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations i Ex females have XX chromosomes males have XY chromosomes b Deductive Reasoning involves reasoning from a general principle that we know to be true to a specific instance i Ex a hypothesis is a type of deductive reasoning because your hypothesis is a specific logical extension of the general theory c Decision Making involves evaluating alternatives and choosing among them i System I the automatic system involves processing that is rapid heuristic associative and intuitive Ex your gut feeling ii System II the effortful system involves conscious reflection Ex solving a math problem iii Ap Dijsterhuis 2006 examined which system is better at making decisions 1 Participants studied information half were distracted half were given time to consciously reflect and think about the information 2 Results revealed that automatic decision making may be more accurate than effortful decision making iv Decision Making Biases 1 Confirmation Bias a search only for info that supports our ideas b Ex voting updates during elections 2 Hindsight Bias a report falsely that we predicted an outcome b Ex I knew they would win after a very close game 3 Availability Heuristic a predict probability based on ease of recall b Ex more likely to die in a car accident on the way to the airport 1 6 500 than to die in a plane crash 1 400 000 4 Base Rate Fallacy a ignore info about general principles b Ex class average is a 75 randomly guess a person s grade Does your answer change if I include information about how long a person studied Why 5 Representativeness Heuristic a make judgments based on stereotypes b Ex 100 people outside of the classroom 95 are doctors 5 are Olympic swimmers randomly guess which person will enter the room Does your answer change if the person entering the room is tall and lanky wearing flip flops and jeans Why 6 Bias Blind Spot a Notice biases in others but not in self d Critical Thinking involves thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence Being mindful and maintaining an open mind helps us think critically i Mindfulness being alert and mentally present for one s everyday activities 1 Ellen Langer study found that people would mindlessly give up their place in line for a copy machine if given meaningless justification 2 Can I go first I need to make copies 90 versus no justification Can I go first 60 ii Open Mindedness being receptive to other ways of looking at things iii Creativity refers to the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise