PSYC 410 1st EditionExam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 8 - 13Study GuideBe able to define:•Similarity and contiguity as laws of association•US, UR, CS, CR•The various patterns of temporal relation between CS and US•Generalization and discrimination•Conditioning of excitation and inhibition•Law of Effect•"Autonomous man" as attacked by Skinner•Shaping•Discriminated operant•Partial reinforcement effect•Superstitious behavior affordances dynamic system embodied cognition extended mind thesisblockingpreparedness and contrapreparednessSauce Bearnaise SyndromeShort Essays1. How did Garcia's work on conditioned taste aversion undermine the behaviorist version of the Blank Slate?2. Distinguish the 3 forms of behaviorism.3. Contrast the stimulus substitution theory of Pavlovian conditioning with the information processing theory.4. What did Thorndike mean when he said that reward "stamps in" an S-R connection?5. Describe Siegel's view that drug addiction involves Pavlovian conditioning.6. Why did Skinner regard concepts such as "superego" or "habit strength" unnecessary in science?7. What were Skinner's criticisms of existing methods in studying learning?8. How did Kohler and Voeks criticize claims that learning was a gradual process?9. Distinguish positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment.10. What was the political appeal of the Blank Slate idea? Why are fears of refuting the Blank Slate idea misplaced?11. What are some of the practical implications of Siegel's theory of addiction for its treatment?12. Describe the two theories used to explain the partial reinforcement effect.- Similarity and contiguity as laws of associationo One of the primary laws of association is contiguity, which says that two ideas will get associated if they occur in the mind at the same time. Translated into Pavlov’s hypothetical brain theory, the theory says that stimuli set up centers of activity in the cerebrum, and that centers regularly activated together will become linked, so that when one center is activated, the other will be, too.o Another law of association is similarity: Similar ideas are easily associated. Pavlov found that CRs occur not just to the trained CS, but to similar stimuli, too.- US, UR, CS, CRo A stimulus that biologically elicits a reflex (food placed in the mouth, a puff of airat the eye) does so reliably and unconditionally, and so is called an unconditional stimulus (US). The biologically elicited reflex is, therefore, an unconditional re- sponse (UR). A stimulus that through pairing with a US comes to elicit a response usu- ally almost identical with the UR is called a conditional stimulus (CS) for its ability to elicit the UR is conditional on pairing with the US and other conditions elucidated by Pavlov. The reflex elicited by a CS is a conditional response (CR). Finally, the US is often called a reinforcer, since its pairing with the CS strengthens (reinforces) the power of the CS to elicit the CR.- The various patterns of temporal relation between CS and USo From the law of contiguity, we might expect exact simultaneous presentation of US and CS to be most effective. Oddly, such pairings produced weak conditioning, as also happens when the US is presented, however briefly, before the CS begins (back- ward conditioning). Instead, the CS must begin slightly before the US and overlap with it. If the CS begins and ends before the US, it is called trace conditioning, which is ex- tremely difficult to establish. The fact that CS and US must overlap to create a CR sup- ports the law of contiguity, but the finding that the onset of the CS must precede the US suggests that CSs become effective only if they act as signals to the organism- Generalization and discriminationo Generalized (the closer the test stimulus is to the conditioned stimulus the greater the response will be) and Discriminationo The extension of a CR to stimuli similar to the CS is called generalization, and thegradual weakening of the CR as the test stimuli increasingly differ from the CS is called the generalization gradient.o On the other hand, we can set excitation and inhibition against one another to produce stimulus discrimination. Suppose we condition salivation to a CS (CS) ofa luminous circle presented on a screen before the dog’s eyes (Pavlov, 1927). If we then present ellipses varying from near-circular to extremely elliptical, we finda generalization gradient. However, right after presenting the CS, we repeatedly present an extreme ellipse alone and never reinforce it. Inhibition will build up to the ellipse (CS). We have created stimulus discrimination. The animal responds toCS, and does not respond to CS.- Conditioning of excitation and inhibitiono The conditioning of a distinct positive response, such as salivation, Pavlov (1927) called conditioning of excitation. The US naturally excites the brain center controlling the UR, and, after several pairings, so does the CS. Pavlov also believed that the action of CRs could be inhibited as well as excited.o If we return to delay conditioning we see inhibition in action. After many CS-US pairings, the CR occurred only near the end of the CS interval, near the anticipated time of the US.o Pavlov (1927) distinguished several kinds of inhibition, the most important of which is extinction. What happens if we present an established CS alone, without further reinforcement? The CR occurs for a while, slowly weakens, and finally falls to zero: No saliva appears when the tone is sounded. It seems plausible to sayhere that the CS has been disassociated from the CR, even that the CS is no longera CS but a neutral stimulus, and there is no CR—the reflex has literally extinguished.- Law of Effecto Another was the Law of Readiness, having to do with the physiological basis of the Law of Effect. Thorndike pro- posed that if the neurons connected to a given action are prepared to fire (and cause the action) their neural firing will beexperienced as pleasure, but that if they are inhibited from firing, displeasure will be felt. The most famous and debated of Thorndike’s laws was the Law of Effect: The Law of Effect is that: Of several responses made to the same situation,those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction to the animal will, other things being equal, be more firmly connected with the situation, so that, when it recurs, they will be more likely to recur; those which are