MemoryIntelligenceMemoryTypes of memory: - Episodic: Refers to memory for personal experience.- Semantic: Refers to generalized formal knowledge of the world.- Procedural: Refers to memory for learned skills.- Implicit: Prior experiences that influence you. These experiences are not intentionally remembered.- Explicit: Deliberately remembered events.Basic processes: - Encoding: acoustic, visual, semantic - Storage: Maintaining info over time; short term and long term- Retrieval: having access to that info; by recall and recognitionRole of attentionWhen you sense something (Sensory memory), you can only store it in “sharp memory” if you pay attention. By attending to stimuli, you can pass the info from sensory memory to short term memory.Information processing model; Consists of 3 stages (in order): Sensory memory, then short-term memory, then long term memory. To store info properly, it needs to go through all 3 stages in that order.Duration and capacity of types of memory:- Sensory memory (auditory, visual, somatosensory, gustatory, olfactory)Very brief, about half a second.- Short term or working memory7 +/- 2 chunks of info, about 20 seconds.- Long term memoryUnlimited capacity, lasts until you forget, but can later remember if correct info is presented.Role of rehearsal in STM and LTM. Rehearsal is the principal method of remembering in STM. When you sense something, you can only KEEP it in short-term memory, but if you rehearse it (practice, repeat) you can store it in long-term memory.Serial-position effect: Experiment: listen to list of words and then asked to write a list.- Primacy effect: When you only remember the beginning of something, but forget themiddle, it is a tendency. Why? Because things (e.g. words) at the beginning have the opportunity to be rehearsed more than the things in the middle (stored in LTM). - Recency effect: When you only remember the end of something, and forget the middle, it is a tendency as well. Why? Because things are still stored in short-term memory.LTM: Long Term Memory- Conceptual hierarchyThere are many categories by which we store info. When you study something easy and then something more complex, the easier thing will be stored as most important because it is more basic. It is stored in your long-term memory.- Semantic networkRelating one category in the conceptual hierarchy to the next. You store things based on the meaning.Forgetting:Deficiency in encoding, storage and retrieval.- Ineffective encoding: lack of attention. Forgetting may be due to this sometimes, but it isn’t really forgetting because the info was not in memory in the first place. (Pseudo-forgetting) Tip of the tongue phenomenon Temporary failure to remember something you know, it is accompanied by a feeling that is just out of reach.Mood-Congruent RetrievalThe mood in which you were in when you stored a memory is recreated.Retrieval: it helps gain access again to memories. (It can be a letter, a sound, word, etc). Ways of measuring retention. There are 3:1. Recall: Reproduce information without external cues (reminder, factor, help). 2. Recognition: Select previously learned material from a range of options. (MC test) 3. Relearning: How much time does it take to learn previously learned material? (First time, may take one hour to relearn a list of words; three weeks later it may take only 10 minutes to relearn the list)Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve“L” shaped. He used syllables with no meaning,placed them in flash cards and studied themrepeatedly, then he tried to remember. Graph tellsyou how long it took him to forget. It tells us that ifthe info does not mean anything to you, you willforget it within 9 hours (Average humanremembers less than 40% of the items after 9hours, if the info is not relevant to the subject).Decay Theory Impermanence of memory storage. Theory says that memory traces fade away with time. It is very TRUE for sensory and short-term memory, but FALSE for long-term memory.Interference Theory: Experiment: subjects receive information. Some go to sleep and others stay awake. Those awake retain less because of interference from competing info. Therefore, it is determined that Interference negatively impacts retention.- Retroactive: difficulty retaining OLD material because of what you are presently learning.- Proactive Interference: Difficulty in retaining NEW material because of what you already know.Encoding Specificity Principle:Usefulness of retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds with memory code. (How well you record something will determine how well you will remember it).Motivated Forgetting When you try to forget something (repress), un purpose, they are kept buried in the unconscious. (Bad test scores, bad experiences)Retrograde Amnesia: Refers to inability to REMEMBER past events, remote or recent. (BEFORE trauma)Anterograde Amnesia:Refers to an inability to FORM new memories. (Just AFTER trauma)IntelligencePsychological Test Standardized measure of a sample of your behavior (The test response is a sample of your behavior). It measures mental abilities, aptitudes, interests and aspects of personality. They are used to measure individual differences, but are NOT precise measuring devices.Mental ability tests: 3 major types - Intelligence tests: assess general intellectual potential (IQ tests). The most widely used modern tests for intelligence are: Stanford-Binet, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Each consisting of a series of 10 or more subtests. (vocabulary, similarities, digit span, information, etc). - Aptitude tests: Assess specific types of mental abilities such as verbal reasoning, numerical ability, formal reasoning, perceptual speed, etc. (SAT) - Achievement tests: Assess specific mastery of knowledge such as math, history, etc. (GRE, AP, IB).The Two Fundamental Requirements for tests:- Reliability (Test-retest correlation): Repeated administration should yield similar results (results from first and second administration should depict HIGH positive correlation). - Validity: Test should measure what it claims to measure. 3 subcategories in validity:o Content Validity: Test should adequately cover the subject matter.o Predictive Validity: Test claims to predict performance on job, college, etc.o Construct Validity: We often measure very abstract concepts such as intelligence. These concepts are also called Hypothetical constructs.
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