Foundations of Psychology Review- Final ExamPersonalityPattern of behavior and thinking:- Unique to each individual- Uniqueness prevails across time and situationPersonality tests:- Designed to identify particular personality characteristics- Psychologists study personality to discover causes of individual differences in behaviorPersonality Research:- (1) Identification of personality characteristics- (2) Factors that produce and control personality characteristics- After you identify, you try to understand how they combine to produce somethingTrait theories of personality:- Gordon Allporto He looks through the dictionary (18000 entries in the dictionary) that has to do with the description of an aspect of personalityo Human language reflects the extent to which people think about themselves and others.o A trait theory may help explain human functioningo Hierarchy Cardinal traits: a social construct (traits that apparently have some kind of historical power/ meaning to them, associated with one person and they represent part of human history) may remind you of Hitler, Mandela or Mother Theresa Central traits: tendency when you talk about individuals, you describe them by central traits, supposedly their central traits (honest, warm, strong, qualities of a leader). Politicians play that game to manipulate your image on themleaders, celebrity, people dominant in the society) life of people in the community Secondary characteristics: ordinary people, we all give certain description of individuals that we know, trait but it is not dominant. - Raymond Cattello Factor analysis technique: group them based on similarities and managedto reduce the number of traits to 16. Extract 16 traits- Hans Eysencko Identifies 3 personality traits. Extract 3 traits 1. Extraversion – introversion 2. Neuroticism (emotionally unstable) – emotionally stable 3. Psychoticism – self-controlPersonality is shaped by the personal environment, not biologicalB. F Skinner: Believes that personality is a result of conditioning, you receive rewards forcertain behaviors and punishment for other behaviors- Personality as a behavioral learning process- Key idea: environment acts on the individual to produce behavior- If you behave in a certain way, the behavior has known consequences - You elicit contingencies with your behavior. - You behave consistent from one situation to the next if the contingency is positive - Your expectations and beliefs about the contingencies become determinants of your behavior: your personality.- They learn vicariously: through the experience of parents and others.- Behaviorism at the core is the idea that you establish behavior by rewarding and punishment- Shaped by learning- Social Cognitive Theory (social learning): Personality is determined by consequences (Reward/ punishment). Overtime individual builds up their belief about these consequences and start to reflect on the environment you are beingraised and it becomes your personality (not a biological approach). Environment acts on you to produce a behavior- Stimulus response-o Reward strengthen o Punish diminishBandura - Social learning- imitate your parents, people in your environment learn about the benefits of behavior from ideas about that- Execute that behavior because the environment shapes you (by observation , contingencies, execution)- Reciprocal determinism- behavior, environment and cognitive factors determine personality (there’s a relationship between those factors)- There is a cognitive process where you evaluate contingencies- Self efficacy- how successful are you at expressing certain behavior, makes you aware. Knowing how to act in a given situation (and be successful). Understand the contingencies and how to elicit them. - Observational learning process- learning by observationWalter Mischel - Believes that personality is consistent from situation to situation- Situationism: traits are revealed by situations in which we find ourselves. Depending upon the situation individual is in, it will elicit certain aspects of their personality, and personality is maintained from situation to situation. Reveals traits of individual- Emphasizes that situation is important- When somebody is behaving differently, there is something wrong, it should be consistentFreud’s Theory:- Consists of 2 major componentso Conscious and Unconscious- Considers the unconscious is a strong factors in the determination of your personality- He makes the unconscious behavior important, it drives much of the individual behavior- He says that the unconscious tries to take over conscious behavior- Psychodynamic theory: we attempt to reduce the influence of unconscious (constant conflict between the conscious and unconscious)- *Ido Unconscious, represents sexual drive (libido) unconscious desires that (aggressions, and others that are inappropriate to express) o Uncivilizedo Governed by the pleasure principleo Uncontrolled force (dark forces- aggression, dark wishes)- *Superegoo Conscience (the rules your parents and society have taught you)o You know how to behaveo Ideals and conscience - *Egoo Ideals (ideals you strive for)o Ego is the part of consciousness that thinks and integrates behavior.o It is governed by the reality principle.o It mediates in the conflict between id and superego.o It uses ‘defense mechanisms’ to:(1) Prevent id from intruding into consciousness (2) Prevent superego from dominating consciousnesso Id constantly tries to invade consciousness, superego tries to dominate conscious behavioro Intrusion of id into consciousness produces anxiety.o Superego domination of consciousness causes feelings of guilto Failure in defense mechanism causes neurosis: anxiety, insecurityo Ego mobilizes defense mechanisms to reduce anxiety and guilto *Defense Mechanisms: *Rationalization you find an excuse to engage in certain behaviors, you have a good reason for it (finding ways to engage in inappropriate behavior but you are excused for it *Repression Tendency to suppress things you are not supposedto be involved in *Projectionproject own emotion unto somebody else, accuse someone *Displacement don’t target your boss, but someone who is weaker and cannot do anything to you **Reaction Formation overly nice to somebody who you don’t like, you’re not supposed to hate that person but hates the person so they become overly nice (Fake love) *RegressionYou slide back
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