POLS 1101Exam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 8-15Lecture 8 (February 18)I. Constitutional PrerogativesA. Powers of Congress- Designed to be the most powerful branch- Primary lawmaking body: laws must pass both chambers of congress, then are signed by president- Article 1, Section 8, lists powers: goes into great detail… at the end, the elastic clause- Broadest power is found in the necessary and proper (or “elastic”) clauseB. Structure- Representation through a bicameral legislature - Comprised of the House and Senate- Result of Connecticut Compromise between large and small states- Compare and contrast the House and the Senate- The House was intended to represent the people, so the number of seats each state gets in the House is apportioned according to the size of the population of the state. Members of the House serve two-year terms and all members are up for reelection every two years to ensure they remain responsive to their constituents. Representatives must be 25 years old.- The Senate was designed to appease the Antifederalists and represent the states. Each state has two senators, regardless of size. Senators serve six-year terms. Originally senators were chosen by state governments, but since the 17th Amendment in 1913, senators are elected by the people. Elections in the Senate are also staggered with only 1/3 of the chamber up for reelection every two years. The longer terms and the staggered elections reflect the Founders’ idea that the Senate would be more deliberative. Senators must be 30 years old.- Principal-agent problem: public representation: All of us have stuff we want to see enacted get enacted by members who get elected for congress (they are our agents)…- In thinking about the principal-agent model, there should be less agency loss in the House, as voters (the principals) have a tighter leash on the representatives (agents) due to frequent elections. Senators, on the other hand, are on a looser leash, as they have six years in office.II. Causes of Individualism in CongressA. Plurality & SMD- Elections for the House and Senate use single-member districts (SMD) and plurality rule: if you get the most votes whether they are majority or not, you win.- In single-member districts, each district/state chooses one representative- Plurality means that whoever receives the most votes winsB. Primaries- Candidates for office used to be determined by political parties- Primaries started as a way to nominate candidates in the early 20th century- Primaries allow voters to choose who will appear under the party label on the general-election ballotC. Redistricting- The number of districts in each state is based on population, with each state getting at least one - The total number of districts has been fixed at 435 members since 1911- Every 10 years when the census comes out, these seats get reallocated… Good for GA because we can get some new seats!- Most states redraw district lines every ten years even if they don’t lose or gain seats which is how we decided who represents what district… could change depending on number of seats allocatedIII. Redistricting and “One Person, One Vote”- Supreme Court put restrictions on the drawing of districts in the 1960s- States want to preserves county lines- Baker v. Carr (1962): it is critical that states adhere to one person, onevote… States need to redraw their maps district lines every 10 years because of the change in population (people, not trees)! - Wesberry v. Sanders (1964): When you draw congressional districts, you have to refer to this…- Reynolds v. Sims (1964): State legislative districts have to adhere to this concept also- Districts must adhere to “one person, one vote” standard- Forced states to draw districts with equal populationsIV. Gerrymandering: drawing districts, possibly in an obtuse way, to generate political gain- Politics easily intrudes into the drawing of districts- By redistricting, states can manipulate representationExample: District was supposed to helpAfrican Americans participate in CongressV. Redistricting and Minority Representation- Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the election of more minority candidates- Federal examiners under the old Section 6- Court scrutiny of congressional redistricting- Section 5 provision for preclearance: Requires that any change in voter laws has to be pre-cleared by justice dept. or federal court- Shelby County v. Holder (2013) and Section 4(b): sets formula for what locals are subject to preclearance- Also a rise in the number of women elected, but Congress still does not demographically mirror the nation as a wholeVI. Partisan and Racial Redistricting: Fixing you district lines for the benefit of partiesVII. Best Type of Representation- How does a member determine how best to represent her constituents?Examples: - Edmund Burke proposed that sometimes members act like trustees (this member believes that the public entrusted me to do the right thing & my job is to figure out what policy is best for the country based on my decision) and othertimes like delegates (this member of congress believes I am elected because the people can’t vote on all the policies of the country directly… I am the voice of my constituents… What they want I will make happen)- Most members try to balance these visions of representation: example would be the debt ceiling crisisVIII. The Incumbency Advantage- Members of Congress are reelected in very high numbers: 90% of members get re-elected of those who seek re-election…- What causes this advantage?- Gerrymandering: Redistricting… Since about 2000, incumbents districts have become more popular- Pork: Perhaps as a member of congress, you can obtain fed. Funding for your district for something they need… However, congress has banned ear-marks- Television access: If you are a member of congress, TV lets everybody seeyour stance on policies… - Campaign finance: If incumbent, it helps raise money for your seats easily- National party effortsLecture 9 (February 20)I. Internal Institutions of Congress and Unstable Coalitions- Institutions and procedures of Congress are designed to grant agenda control to a subset of people- Agenda control helps overcome unstable coalition problems and prevent chaosII. Party Leaders- Party leaders solve coordination and unstable coalition problems by enforcing party discipline (HOR: where republican party is majority