PSYC 4520 1st Edition Lecture 29Outline of Last Lecture I. Individual Differences in Gender-Role BehaviorA. Traditional gender roles and learningII. Masculinity-FemininityA. Masculinity and femininityB. Congruence modelC. Masculinity modelD. Androgyny modelIII. Gender Type and Psychological Well-Being A. Support for the different modelsIV. Gender Type and Interpersonal RelationshipsA. Character sketchesV. Unmitigated CommunionA. Unmitigated communionVI. Observational Learning of AggressionA. Learning aggression through observationB. Bandura’s four-step modelVII. Mass Media Aggression and Aggressive BehaviorA. StudiesB. Violent video gamesVIII. Learned HelplessnessThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.A. Learned helplessnessB. Learning to be helpless C. Learned helplessness in humansIX. Some Applications of Learned HelplessnessA. The elderlyB. DepressionX. Locus of ControlA. Locus of controlB. Locus of control and well-beingC. Locus of control and healthOutline of Current Lecture I. IntroductionA. The cognitive approachII. Personal Construct TheoryA. Personal construct theoryB. Psychological problemsIII. Cognitive Personality VariablesA. Cognitive personality variablesB. SchemasIV. Cognitive Representations of the SelfA. Cognitive representations of the selfB. Self-schemasC. Research on self-schemasD. Possible selvesE. Self-discrepanciesV. Application: Cognitive PsychotherapyA. Cognitive psychotherapyB. Rational emotive therapyVI. Assessment: The Repertory Grid TechniqueA. The Repertory Grid TechniqueVII. Strengths and Criticisms of the Cognitive ApproachA. StrengthsB. CriticismsVIII. Cognitions and AggressionA. Cognitions and aggressionB. General aggression modelC. Reactive aggression in boysIX. Gender, Memory, and Self-ConstrualA. Gender, memory, and self-construalB. Emotional memoriesC. Memories about relationshipsX. Cognitions and DepressionA. Cognitions and depressionB. Depressive schemasC. Negative cognitive styleCurrent LectureI. IntroductionA. The cognitive approachi. This says that different people have different experiences of the same thing because we all have different ways of processing information. Differences in the way we process information lead to different behaviors and personalities. II. Personal Construct TheoryA. Personal construct theoryi. George Kelly, the pioneer of the cognitive approach, coined the man-the-scientist view. Like scientists, we constantly form/test hypotheses; we want to predict/control our lives as much as possible. To satisfy this need, we use template matching (our ideas about the world are similar to transparent templates). We place these templates over certain events; if they match, we retain the templates. If they do not, we modify them. For example, you may have formed a hypothesis that your teacher is arrogant. When you see him, you collect more information and compare it with your hypothesis. If it is verified, you continue using it. If not, you replace it with a new one. ii. Kelly called the cognitive structures we use to interpret/predict events personal constructs. We all have different constructs and organize them differently. These constructs are bipolar: we classify objects in an either/or fashion within our constructs. When I first meet someone, I may apply the constructs friendly-unfriendly, tall-short, and intelligent-unintelligent in constructing an image of him. I may decide that he is friendly, tall, and intelligent. But this does not mean that we see the world as black and white; after applying our first construct, we often use other bipolar constructs: for example, after determining that this person is intelligent, I may then apply an academically-intelligent-commonsense intelligent construct to get an even clearer picture of him.iii. Personal constructs can explain personality. I use different constructs than you to form an impression of a person. Because I use these same constructs when meeting others, I have a characteristic way of interacting with people that is different from yours. Thus, the relatively stable patterns in our behavior are due to the relatively stable way we construe the world.B. Psychological problemsi. Kelly applied his ideas about personality to treating psychological problems. He rejected the idea that disorders are caused by past traumatic experiences; rather, he said people suffer from psychological problems because of defects in their construct systems. Well-adjusted people constantly update these constructsystems, while maladjusted people do not.ii. Kelly placed anxiety at the heart of most psychological problems. We are anxiouswhen our personal constructs do not make sense of events in our lives. For example, an upcoming interview causes more anxiety if you don’t know what you will be asked. Relationship issues are more unsettling when you don’t know why things are going badly or how to put the relationship back on track.III. Cognitive Personality VariablesA. Cognitive personality variablesi. Psychologists have used a “black box” metaphor to describe the relationship between stimuli and responses. In this model, features in the environment (e.g. a loud noise) cause behaviors (e.g. running away). But what happens in the organism between the stimulus and response is unknowable and unknown (the black box). In contrast, the elements between stimulus and response are important to cognitive personality psychologists; they have introduced a large number of cognitive variables (cognitive-affective units) to account for individualdifferences. Some of these include: goals and values, affects, expectations and beliefs, encodings, and competencies/self-regulatory plans.ii. Cognitive personality variables are part of a system that links the situations we encounter with our behavior. How we react to features in the environment, and even whether we notice these features, depends on our cognitive structures. Once perceived, various mental representations (e.g. expectations, values, and goals) interact with each other to determine how we respond to the situation. Our behavior can then affect the situation. B. Schemasi. There are individual differences within this cognitive framework because each ofus has a different set of mental representations (schemas). Also, how easily we access certain kinds of information stored in memory varies among individuals. Thus, 2