PSYC 4520 1st Edition Lecture 22Outline of Last Lecture I. Self-DisclosureA. What is self-disclosure?B. Self-disclosure in psychotherapyC. Disclosure reciprocityD. Self-disclosure among friends and romantic partnersE. Disclosing men and disclosing womenF. Disclosing traumatic experiencesII. LonelinessA. LonelinessB. Defining and measuring lonelinessC. Chronically lonely peopleD. The causes of lonelinessIII. Self-EsteemA. Self-esteemB. Self-esteem and reaction to failureC. Contingencies of self-worthD. Self-esteem and cultureIV. SolitudeThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.A. SolitudeB. Time aloneC. Preference for solitudeOutline of Current Lecture I. IntroductionA. The behavioral/social-learning approachII. BehaviorismA. What is behaviorism?III. Basic Principles of ConditioningA. ConditioningIV. Classical ConditioningA. What is classical conditioning?V. Application: Explaining Psychological DisordersA. Little AlbertCurrent LectureI. IntroductionA. The behavioral/social learning approachi. Behavioral psychologists believe that a person can modify behavior by applying basic principles of learning.ii. Early behaviorists limited their descriptions to observable behaviors. Later, social learning theorists expanded the approach to include both observable and unobservable concepts (cognitive variables like thoughts, values, expectancies, and individual perceptions). Social learning psychologists also noted that people can learn simply by watching someone else or hearing about someone else’s behavior.iii. Again, personality consists of consistent behavior patterns.iv. The appeal of this theory is that it is simple and rational; it also allows a lot of space of behavior change.II. BehaviorismA. What is behaviorism?i. In 1913, psychologist John Watson argued that if psychology were to be a science, psychologists must stop examining mental states; he said that this was not a legitimate scientific study. Rather, psychologists should study overt behavior: that which can be predicted, observed, and eventually controlled by scientists.ii. B.F. Skinner, another behavioral psychologist, coined radical behaviorism. He did not deny the existence of thoughts and inner experience but challenged the extent to which we can observe the inner causes of our behavior. For example, suppose you are uncomfortable at social events, and you feel nervous as you prepare for a party. At the last minute, your anxiety becomes intense and you decide to stay home. Why did you skip the party? Most would say that they did so because they felt anxious, but Skinner said that behavior does not change because you feel anxious; the decision to skip the party and the anxiety are both conditioned reactions to the situation. By citing your anxiety as the reason for not going, you simply put a label on the behavior—you did not identify the cause.iii. Behaviorism is the 2nd force in American psychology (psychoanalysis is 1st and humanism is 3rd).III. Basic Principles of ConditioningA. Conditioningi. Traditional behaviorists explain the causes of behavior in terms of learning experiences (conditioning). They do not deny the influence of genetics but downplay its importance relative to the power of conditioning. They say that if we are to understand the processes that shape our personalities as well as develop procedures for changing problem behaviors, we must examine basic conditioning principles. Thus, behaviorists believe in “nurture” more than “nature.”ii. Behaviorists say that all behavior is conditioned, or learned, via classical conditioning (which relies on connections) or operant conditioning (whichrelies on consequences).IV. Classical ConditioningA. What is classical conditioning?i. Classical conditioning begins with an existing stimulus-response (S-R) association. For example, some people cringe (response) whenever they see a spider (stimulus). Our behavior repertoire contains a lot of S-R associations; for example, you may feel faint when you see blood or hungry whenever you smell chocolate.ii. To show conditioning, Pavlov used the S-R association of food and salivation. He presented dogs in his lab with meat powder (stimulus), to which they would salivate (response). Because this association existed without any conditioning, the meat powder is the “unconditioned stimulus” (UCS) and the salivation the “unconditioned response” (UCR). Then, Pavlov paired the unconditioned stimulus with a new, conditioned stimulus (CS). Whenever he presented the meat powder to the dogs, he also sounded a bell. After several trials of presenting the meat powder and bell together, Pavlov sounded the bell without the powder. Indeed, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell, even though no meat powder had been presented. The salivation had become the “conditionedresponse” (CR), part of a new S-R association (bell tone-salivation) in the dogs’ behavioral repertoire.iii. Once the new S-R association is established, it can be used to condition still another S-R association. For example, if you were to pair a green light with Pavlov’s bell tone, after a while the dogs would start to salivate whenthe green light came on. This process of building one conditioned S-R association on another is called “second-order conditioning.”iv. Researchers have found limitations of classical conditioning. For a new S-Rassociation to persist, the unconditioned/conditioned stimuli must be paired occasionally/reinforced. When Pavlov presented his conditioned dogs with just the bell tone, the dogs salivated less and less until finally failing to salivate to the tone at all. This gradual disappearance of the conditioned S-R association is called “extinction.”V. Application: Explaining Psychological DisordersA. Little Albert i. Watson showed how “abnormal” behaviors are created through normal conditioning procedures. He used classical conditioning to create a fear ofwhite rats in an 11-month-old baby known as Little Albert.ii. Watson began with the S-R association between a loud noise and fear found in most infants: whenever Watson made the noise, Albert would cry/show other signs of fear. Next, Watson showed Albert a white rat, each time accompanied by the loud noise. Soon Albert responded to the white rat the same way he had to the noise, even when the noise was notsounded. Thus, Watson said,