PSYC 4520 1st Edition Lecture 28Outline of Last Lecture I. Application: Self-Efficacy TherapyA. Self-efficacyB. ExpectationsC. Sources of efficacy expectationsD. Guided masteryII. Assessment: Behavior Observation MethodsA. Behavior as a problemB. Direct observationC. Self-monitoringD. Observation by othersIII. Strengths and Criticisms of the Behavioral/Social Learning Approach A. StrengthsB. CriticismsOutline of Current Lecture I. Individual Differences in Gender-Role BehaviorA. Traditional gender roles and learningII. Masculinity-FemininityThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.A. Masculinity and femininityB. Congruence model C. Masculinity modelD. Androgyny modelIII. Gender Type and Psychological Well-BeingA. Support for the different modelsIV. Gender Type and Interpersonal RelationshipsA. Character sketchesV. Unmitigated CommunionA. Unmitigated communionVI. Observational Learning of AggressionA. Learning aggression through observationB. Bandura’s four-step modelVII. Mass Media Aggression and Aggressive BehaviorA. StudiesB. Violent video gamesVIII. Learned HelplessnessA. Learned helplessnessB. Learning to be helplessC. Learned helplessness in humansIX. Some Applications of Learned HelplessnessA. The elderlyB. DepressionX. Locus of ControlA. Locus of controlB. Locus of control and well-beingC. Locus of control and healthCurrent LectureI. Individual Differences in Gender-Role BehaviorA. Traditional gender roles and learningi. Traditional stereotypes portray men as aggressive, independent, and unemotional, and women as passive, dependent, and affectionate.ii. Men and women behave differently for a few reasons. While biological differences play a role, behaviorists and social learning theorists point to alifelong process of gender-role socialization. People acquire/maintain gender-appropriate behaviors via through operant conditioning and observational learning.iii. The effects of operant conditioning can be seen when kids act in gender-inappropriate ways. Boys tease each other for crying/playing with dolls; girls tease each other for acting like tomboys. Boys are rewarded for playing football, girls for showing an interest in babies/dressing up.iv. Kids also acquire gender-role behaviors via observational learning. They learn which behaviors are expected of males/females by watching those around them. They can then learn which behaviors are more often performed by one gender than by the other. For example, if dad always fixes a broken appliance, kids will conclude that men are rewarded for mechanical behavior but women are not. Thus, boys are more likely to get involved with these things (anticipating rewards) than girls.v. These behaviors are difficult to change; even before the child can talk, parents interact differently with daughters than they do with sons.II. Masculinity-FemininityA. Masculinity and femininityi. Psychologists want to describe how people typically act in terms of their gender-role behavior. They used to call these traits masculinity (for men) and femininity (for women). Others want to replace these terms with more specific/less emotionally loaded labels: “agency” (independence, assertiveness, control: like masculinity) and “communion” (attachment, cooperation, interpersonal connection: like femininity).ii. Early scales to measure the differences in gender-role behavior were based on 2 assumptions. First, masculinity and femininity were assumed to represent 2 extreme positions on a continuum: if you were more of one, you were less of the other. Second, the more people’s gender-role behavior matched the stereotype for their gender, the more psychologically healthy they were. iii. One scale on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the Mf (Masculinity-Femininity) Scale. Initially, researchers said that scoring too far on the wrong side of this scale for one’s gender indicated psychological disturbances. There are 3 models that explain the relation between gender type and well-being: the congruence model, masculinity model, and androgyny model.B. Congruence modeli. This says that masculine men and feminine women are the most well-adjusted. Society pressures men and women to act in gender-appropriate ways; if people do not develop the gender type dictated by society, they will not be rewarded. Society rewards masculine men/ feminine women, while masculine women/feminine men face social rejection/ridicule. C. Masculinity modeli. This says that being masculine is the key to mental health. In many ways, our society is still geared towards admiring/rewarding traits traditionally associated with men. Stereotypically, men are independent, women are dependent. Men are achieving/powerful, women are unassertive/ conforming. Men are leaders, women are followers. Thus, it makes sense that those who fit the masculine role may accomplish more and feel better about themselves than those who do not.D. Androgyny modeli. This rejects the notion that masculinity and femininity are opposites on a single continuum. Instead, they are independent traits; people can be high on both traits, or on only one, or neither. As these traits are independent, knowing that someone is high or low in masculinity tells us nothing about how feminine that person is. ii. This challenges the assumption that a person’s gender should match his or her gender type. Advocates say that the most well-adjusted person is both masculine and feminine (androgynous). People who are only masculine/feminine often cannot engage in adaptive behavior; a well-adjusted person must have the flexibility to engage in masculine behavior when the situation demands and in feminine behavior when it is most appropriate. People whose behavioral repertoires lack either masculine or feminine behaviors are ill-prepared to respond to many situations.iii. To measure this, psychologists developed a scale. People high in masculinity and low in femininity are masculine; people high in femininityand low in masculinity are feminine; people high in both categories are androgynous; people low in both categories are undifferentiated.III. Gender Type and Psychological Well-BeingA. Support for the different modelsi. Most studies support the masculinity model. Because masculine people use direct, problem-focused strategies, they are better able to deal with stressors. Also, people who possess