Jaymie TicknorDevelopmental Psychology 3620 Sect. 8531 September 2013Chapter #2Basic Principles and ApplicationsWhy Are Theories Important?St. James-Roberts (2007) studied two types of parenting:Demand Parenting: babies were reliably picked up when they cried; resulted in babies crying less during the first 3 months of life but continuing to cry at night after thatageStructured Parenting: standard bedtimes and routines were put in place and some crying was acceptable; resulted in more crying during the first 3 months but reduced crying at night thereafterTheories of Child and Adolescent DevelopmentPsychoanalytic TheorySigmund Freud: father of psychoanalysis (psyche: the mind; analysis implies looking at the parts of the mind individually to see how they relate)Unconscious Mind: the part of the mind that contains thoughts and feelings about which we are unawareFree Association: the process used by psychoanalysis in which one thinks of anything that comesto mind in relation to a dream or another thought to reveal the contents of the unconscious mindId: according to psychoanalytic theory, the part of the personality that consists of the basic drives, such as sex and hungerPleasure Principle: the idea that the id seeks immediate gratification for all of its urgesEgo: the part of the personality that contends with the reality of the world and controls the basic drives (means “I” or “self”)Reality Principle: the psychoanalytic concept that the ego has the ability to deal with the real world and not just drives and fantasySuperego: Freud’s concept of the conscience or sense of right and wrongSigmund Freud’s Psychosexual StagesPsychosexual Stages: Freud’s idea that at each stage, sexual energy is invested in a different part of the body throughout lifeOral Stage: lasts from birth to about 18 months; Freud’s first stage, in which infants’ biological energy is centered on the mouth areaAnal Stage: lasts from 18 months to 3 years; Freud’s second stage, in which toddlers’ sexual energy is focused on the anus (potty training)Phallic Stage: lasts from 3 to 6 years; Freud’s third stage, in which children 3 to 6 overcome theirattraction to the opposite-sex parent and begin to identify with the same-sex parentLatency Stage: occurs between 6 and 12 years; Freud’s fourth stage, involving ages 6 to 12, when the sex drive goes underground (from parents to peers; cooties)Genital Stage: 12 and older; Freud’s fifth and final stage in which people 12 and older develop adult sexuality (young adolescents)Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesPsychosocial Stages: Erikson’s stages that are based on a central conflict to be resolved involving the social world and the development of identityEpigenetic Principle: the idea that each stage of development builds on the outcome of the stagesthat preceded itTable 2.1Trust vs. Mistrust: infants go through this first stage; development of trust in maternal care and in one’s own ability to cope versus hopelessnessAutonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: toddlers go through this second stage; independence and self-control versus lack of confidenceInitiative vs. Guilt: preschoolers go through this third stage; exuberant (joyful) activity versus overcontrol (did something wrong)Industry vs. Inferiority: school age kids go through this fourth stage; learning the tasks of one’s society versus a sense of inadequacyIdentity vs. Role Confusion: teenagers go through this fifth stage; integration of previous experiences to form an identity versus confusion about one’s role in societyBehaviorism and Social Cognitive TheoryBehaviorism: the theory developed by John B. Watson that focuses on environmental control of observable behaviorSocial Cognitive Theory: the theory that individuals learn by observing others and imitating theirbehaviorJohn B. Watson and Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning: the process by which a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) that naturally evokes a certain response (the unconditioned response) is paired repeatedly witha neutral stimulus. Eventually the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus and evokes the same response, now called the conditioned responseIvan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning from studying digestion in dogs by feeding salivating dogsJohn Watson did the Little Albert study, where Watson made baby Albert fear white furry rats and other white furry things (generalization)Phobia: an irrational fear of something specific that is so severe that it interferes with day-to-day functioningB. F. Skinner and Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning: the process that happens when the response that follows a behavior to happen more or less (slowly shaping behavior)Reinforcement: a response to a behavior that causes that behavior to happen morePositive Reinforcement: a response that makes a behavior more likely to happen again because itadds a pleasant stimulusNegative Reinforcement: a response that makes a behavior more likely to happen again becauseit removes an unpleasant stimulusSchedules of ReinforcementSchedules of Reinforcement: schedules (ratio or interval) on which reinforcement can be delivered based on a fixed or variable number of responses (ratio) or fixed or variable lengths of time (interval)Punishment and ExtinctionPunishment: administering a negative consequence or taking away a positive reinforcement to reduce the likelihood of an undesirable behavior occurringPositive Punishment: adding something unpleasant to decrease undesirable behaviorNegative Punishment: removing something pleasant to decrease undesirable behaviorExtinction: in operant conditioning, the process by which a behavior stops when it receives no response from the environmentAlbert Bandura and Social Cognitive TheoryAlbert Bandura did the Bobo Doll experiment (violence/aggression) where the kids would watch an adult (role model) beat up a Bobo Doll and then more likely to imitate the adult’s actionsModern Applications of Social Cognitive TheorySelf-Efficacy: a belief in our own ability to influence our own functioning and our life circumstancesHigh Self-Efficacy: where one believes that his/her actions make a huge impact in the world or lifeLow Self-Efficacy: where one believes that his/her actions will not make a big impact in the world or lifeTheories of Cognitive DevelopmentJean Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental TheorySchema: a cognitive framework that places concepts, objects, or experiences into categories or