Chapter 7 Study Guide Computer analogy for thinking The physical brain is like the computer s software while cognition is like the computers hardware Our sensory and perceptual systems provide an input channel As information input comes into the mind mental processes or operations act on it just as the computer s software acts on the data The transformed input generates input that remains in memory much in the way a computer stores what it has worked on The information is retrieved from memory and printed out or displayed as an observable response The computers provide a logical model of the mind s processing of information though it is extremely simplified in comparison to the brain o Artificial intelligence is a scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people Concepts a mental category that is used to group objects events and characteristics It is a fundamental aspect of thinking the process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts solving problems making decisions and reflecting critically or creatively Concepts help us to group things mentally in categories such as fruit dogs etc There are four reasons that concepts are important o First concepts allow us to generalize This way every new object or event we experience is not unique and new every time we encounter it o Second concepts allow us to associate experiences and objects For example we know that basketball baseball and football are all sports o Third concepts aid memory by making it more efficient so that we do not have to reinvent the wheel every time we come across a piece of information o Fourth concepts provide clues about how to react to a particular object or experience Prototype model a model emphasizing that when people evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept they compare the item with the most typical item s in that category and look for a family resemblance with that item s properties We create a representation of the average or ideal member prototype of a family This allows room for exceptions Problem solving steps problem solving is the mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available There are four steps in the problem solving process o Find and Frame recognizing a problem Involves noticing a problem and finding new ways to solve it that are oftentimes not readily available o Develop Good Problem Solving Strategies developing strategies for solving the problem There are three effective strategies Subgoaling setting intermediate goals or defining intermediate problems in order to be in a better position for reaching a final goal or solution Algorithims strategies including formulas instructions and the testing of all possible solutions that guarantee a solution to a problem Ex a recipe or driving instructions Heuristics shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer o Evaluate solutions Judge whether your solution is effective o Rethink and Redefine Problems Over Time Improve on your past performance Functional fixedness failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing s usual functions Overcoming functional fixedness involves being able to view things such as tools as having more than one defined function Inductive vs Deductive Reasoning reasoning is the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions o Inductive reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations Takes a few instances and applies it to a whole such as assuming that since you have turned on your phone many times without it exploding phones can be turned on without exploding o Deductive reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance Conclusions are drawn based on facts Reasoning vs Decision making o Reasoning the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions o Decision making the mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them Confirmation bias the tendency to search for and use information that supports one s ideas rather than refuses them Hindsight bias the tendency to report falsely after the fact that one has accurately predicted an outcome Availability heuristic a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events Base rate Fallacy the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information Representative heuristic the tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information Characteristics of critical thinking thinking reflectively and productively and evaluating the evidence It requires maintaining a sense of humility about what we know and what we do not know Two mental habits essential to critical thinking o Mindfulness being alert and mentally present for one s o Open mindedness the state if being receptive to other everyday activities ways of looking at things Divergent vs Convergent Thinking two ways of thinking in regards to creativity the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems o Divergent thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem Occurs during brainstorming o Convergent thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem Criterion validity validity is the extent to which a test measures what it intended to measure Reliability the extent to which a test yields a consistent reproducible measure of performance Validity in order for a test to be valid it must also be reliable However a reliable test need not be valid Standardization the development of uniform procedure for administering and scoring a test and the creation of norms performance standards for the test Mental vs Chronological age o Mental an individual s level of mental development in relation to that of others o Chronological age from birth Intelligence quotient An individual s mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100 Cultural bias early iq tests were biased against certain races socioeconomic statuses etc Later cultural fair tests were devised in order for iq tests to be culturally unbiased Heritability the proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences
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