CBIO 2200 1nd EditionFinal Exam Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 22Covers: Chapters 1-3, Atlas A, 5-9, 11-16Chapter 1Anatomy – The Study of Form- Anatomy – the study of structure/form- Physiology – the study of function- Ways to examine the structure of the human body:o Inspection: simply looking at the body’s appearanceo Palpation: feeling a structure with the handso Auscultation: listening to the natural sounds made by the body, such as heart andlung soundso Percussion: examiner taps on body, feels for abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted sound for signs of abnormalities such as pockets of fluid or air o Dissection: carefully cutting and separating tissues to reveal their relationshipso Cadaver: dissection of a dead human bodyo Comparative anatomy: the study of multiple species in order to examine similarities and differences and analyze evolutionary trendso Exploratory surgery: opening the body and looking inside to see what was wrong and what could be done about ito Medical imaging: replaced exploratory surgery in modern times; methods of viewing the inside of the body without surgery (e.g. x-rays)o Gross anatomy: structure that can be seen by the naked eye (not under microscope)- Radiology – branch of medicine concerned with medical imaging- Histology – microscopic anatomy; viewing cells under a microscope- Histopathology – microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease- Cytology – study of the structure and function of individual cells- Ultrastructure – refers to fine detail, down to the molecular level, revealed by the electron microscopePhysiology – The Study of Function- Sub-disciplines of physiology – o Neurophysiology: physiology of the nervous systemo Endocrinology: physiology of hormoneso Pathophysiology: mechanisms of disease- Comparative physiology – the study of how different species have solved problems of lifesuch as water balance, respiration, and reproductiono Basis for new drugs and medical proceduresThe Scientific Method – A Uniform Approach to Experimentation- Created by Rene Descartes and Francis Bacono They argued against biased thinking and for more objectivity in scienceo Outlined a systematic way of seeking similarities, differences, and trends in nature and drawing useful generalizations from observable factso Wanted to create a method that yields reliable, objective, testable information about natureo Scientific Method – refers less to observational procedures than to certain habits of disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking, and honest analysis of one’s observations and conclusions Particularly important in health sciences Sets a standard for truthThe Inductive Method- First prescribed by Bacon; a process of making numerous observations until one feels confident in drawing generalizations and predictions from them- What we know of anatomy is a product of inductive methodThe Hypothetico-Deductive Method- How most physiological knowledge was obtained- Steps in the method – o Investigator begins by asking a questions and forming a hypothesis (which is an educated speculation or possible answer to the question)o A good hypothesis must be: Consistent with what is already known Capable of being tested and possible falsified by evidenceo Flasifiability: means that if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong If nothing can prove it wrong, it is not scientifico From the hypothesis a researcher makes a deductiono Experiment yields observations that either support or abandon hypothesiso If abandoned, create a better hypothesis and test that oneThe Hierarchy of Complexity - Humans hierarchy from macroscopic to microscopico Organism  organ systems  organs  tissues  cells  organelles  molecules  atoms- Reductionism – the theory that a large, complex system such as the human body can be understood by studying its simpler componentso Introduced by Aristotle- Holism – the complementary theory that there are “emergent properties” of the whole organism that cannot be predicted from the properties of its separate partso Human beings are more than just the sum of their partsAnatomical Variation- No two humans are exactly alike- There is a most common structure – the anatomy seen in about 70% or more of people- Some people are anatomically variedo Extra or fewer vertebraeo Only one kidneyo Two spleenso Etc. Characteristics of Life- Characteristics that distinguish living from non-living peopleo Organization: living things have a much higher level of organization than the non-livingo Cellular composition: living matter is always made of one or more cellso Metabolism: living things take in molecules from environment and chemically change them into molecules that form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide them with energy Metabolism – the sum of all this internal chemical change Requires excretiono Responsiveness/movement: the ability of organs to sense and react to stimulio Homeostasis: the organism maintains relatively stable internal conditionso Development: any change in form or function over lifetime of the organism Differentiation: non-specialized cells to specialized cells Growtho Reproduction: all living organisms can produce copies of themselveso Evolution: exhibit genetic change from generation to generationPhysiological Variation- Physiological variables differ with sex, age, weight, diet, degree of physical activity, and environment- These variations must be considered when treating patients- Typical physiological values:o Reference man – 154 lbs., 22 years, light physical activity, consumes 2800 caloriesper dayo Reference woman – 22 years, 128 lbs., light physical activity, consumes 2000 calories per dayHomeostasis & Negative Feedback- Homeostasis – the body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions- Claude Bernard observed that internal conditions of the body remain constant even when external conditions vary greatly (internal temperature stays around 97 – 99 degrees)- Walter Cannon coined the term “homeostasis”- Dynamic equilibrium – there is a certain set point or average for a given variable (such asbody temp.) and conditions fluctuate slightly around this point- Negative feedback: the fundamental mechanism that keeps a variable close