BIOL 1108 1nd Edition Lecture 19Outline of Last Lecture I. Learning Objectives II. Blood Sugar RegulationIII. Hormones that Regulate Blood Sugar IV. Diabetes Mellitus V. Calcium RegulationVI. Hormones that Regulate Calcium Outline of Current Lecture I. Learning ObjectivesII. In The NewsIII. Sexual VariationIV. Asexual MechanismV. Sexual MechanismVI. Reproductive Organs Produce and Transport Gametes VII. Human ReproductionVIII. Sex Hormones IX. Reproductive Process in Females Current LectureI. Learning Objectives 1. Be able to:These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.- Compare and contrast asexual and sexual reproduction adaptations in animals- Compare and contrast male and female gamete production- Compare and contrast male and female hormones and cycles- Compare and contrast menstrual and estrous cycles- Know the four stages of embryonic development common to animalsII. In The News: How might drinking diet soda raise our risk of becoming diabetic?- According to a Nature article, diet sodas may be a cause of metabolic diseases due to changing the microbiome of the gut. Scientists in Israel tested on mice to see the effects of pure sugar and artificial sugar. Those fed with artificial sweeteners, like sucralose, formed an intolerance to glucose.- Artificial sweeteners in our everyday products: saccharine, sucralose, aspartame- Blood glucose levels in mice exposed to acceptable daily intake of saccharin compared to glucose (in water)- Effects of antibiotics on glucose intolerance by mice: bacteria communities in mice relative to exposure to artificial saccharin or controls - 3 month sugar concentration and blood levels in humans exposed to non-caloric artificial sweeteners III. Sexual Variation1. Individuals can change sex during their lifetime2. Individuals can function as males and females 3. In a population, there may only be a few reproductive individuals4. Animals reproduce sexually and asexually IV. Asexual Mechanism Fission- parent separates into two individuals of about equal size- Ex. Sea anemone Budding- new individual forms from outgrowths- Ex. Stony coral Fragmentation/regeneration- reform parts of the body- Ex. Worms, sponges, cnidarians Parthenogenesis- unfertilized eggs are able to develop and offspring can be haploid or diploid- Ex. Wasps, ants, bees- Costs and Benefits: adapted to stable environments, produce more offspring at a faster rate, lack genetic diversity V. Sexual Mechanism  Reproductive cycles- occur when sources are available and are regulated by hormones  Fertilization Methods- External fertilization- eggs are released into the environment to be fertilized- Internal fertilization- matching copulatory organs and fewer gametes; placenta (temporary organ)- Costs and Benefits: more complex, better adapted to variable environments because of genetic recombination, higher survival rate TOPHAT QUESTION: Animals using external fertilization tend to produce more eggs per reproductive cycle than those using internal fertilization. The BEST potential explanation for external fertilizers producing more eggs would be?C) Lower survival rates of eggs VI. Reproductive Organs Produce and Transport Gametes Gonads: organs that produce gametes (not all animals have them)Spermathecae: sperm storage sacs (many insects)Cloaca: opening to the outside that is shared with the digestive, excretory, and reproductive tracts (non-mammalian vertebrates) ex. Birds and reptiles- “cloaca kiss”- extended cloaca to transport the sperm from male to female; must be a choice and accepted VII. Human Reproduction Gametogenesis- production of gametes Males- Sperm- small and motile- Spermatogenesis- continuous, produce millions of sperm per dayo Produce 4 viable sperm cells (haploid) Females- Eggs- larger and proved a food source for the embryo- Oogenesis- development of mature oocytes, happens in cycleso Only one viable egg out of 4 haploid cells produced o Production of eggs prior to birth  TOPHAT QUESTION: During meiosis cells divide and ploidy is reduced.VIII. Sex Hormones- Hypothalamus releases Gonadotropin-releasing hormones (GnRH) to the Anterior Pituitary which then releases: Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Luteinizing Hormone (LH)o Hormones regulate gametogenesiso Target tissues: gonads (males-testes, females- ovaries)- Male Hormones- Testosterone and Inhibin o Gamete production and affects male anatomy, puberty, sex drive, and aggression- Female Hormones- Estradiol and Progesteroneo Gamete production and affects female anatomy, water retention, andcalcium metabolism IX. Reproductive Process in Females 1. Hypothalamus secretes GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LHa. This stimulates the follicles to grow (generally one follicle grows)b. If estrogen levels are low, then there’s going to be a negative feedback to the hypothalamus.i. GnRH production decreases, lowering the release of FSH and LHii. Leads to the shedding of uterine liningc. If estrogen levels are high, then there is a positive feedback to the hypothalamus.i. Increases in the secretion of GnRH raises the release of FSH and LHii. When the hormone levels spike ovulation is triggered. iii. Increased estrogen also stimulates the development of the uterinelining.2. Ovulation- the release of an egg from the ovarya. If the egg is fertilized then it becomes a corpus lutemi. Estrogen and progesterone maintain the uterine lining for the preparation of a fetus ii. Sends negative feedback signals to anterior pituitary and hypothalamusb. If the egg is not fertilized then the corpus lutem breaks downi. Progesterone and estrogen levels decreaseii. Menstrual cycle starts over again TOPHAT QUESTION: For humans, sperm can survive up to 5 days in a female reproductive tract; an ovulated egg can survive 24-48 hours. Which day of the menstrualcycle should a couple try to conceive? B) Day 12- Menopauseo Cessation of ovulation and menstruation (typically between the ages of 46-54)o The ovaries stop responding to FSH and LH: estradiol production decreases- Menstrual vs. Estrous Cycles - Common Embryonic Development Stages o Fertilization Sperm dissolves/penetrates egg’s protective layer to reach the egg’splasma membrane Sperm binds to egg receptors (ensures fertilization by the same species) Polysemy prevention (prevents abnormal