BIOL 1103 1st EditionExam # 2 Study Guide Lectures: 10-13Lecture 10 (September 17)What is oxidation and reduction? How does NADH do its job? What are the three stages of cellular respiration? Where do these three stages take place and what are their products?- Oxidation is when a substance loses electrons to another. Conversely, reduction is when a substance gains electrons from another. - NADH is an electron carrier. NADH starts out as NAD+ and then is reduced as it accepts an electron a neighboring hydrogen atom; it reduced to just NAD. It then goes on to pick upa hydrogen atom, thus becoming NADH. NADH then carries electrons to a later stage of respiration and then drops them off, becoming oxidized to its original form (NAD+). - Three stages of cellular respiration: glycolysis—the breaking down of sugars, Krebs cycle—sets stage for third stage, and the electron transport chain or ETC.- Glycolysis takes place in cell cytosol and yields 3 pyruvic acid molecules, 2 ATP, and 2 energized molecules of NADH. Krebs cycle happens in the interior of the inner membrane known as the inner compartment. It yields 2 ATP, citric acid, and another electron carrier known as FADH2. ETC happens in mitochondrial inner membrane nad yields 32 ATP.Lecture 11 (September 19)Where does photosynthesis take place? What are the structures inside a chloroplast? What is the relationship between wavelength and energy? What is the basic structure of a leaf? What is the Calvin Cycle?- Photosynthesis happens in the chloroplasts of plant cells. - Chloroplasts consist of grana, stroma, thylakoids, inner membrane, and outer membrane. Grana are stacks of thylakoids and stroma are the spaces in between grana.- Shorter the wavelength  higher energyLonger wavelength  lower energy- Leave have a top and bottom membrane. Within the bottom membrane lays the stoma,pores that allow CO2 to come in and oxygen and water vapor to go out. The mesophyll is the area made of cells in between the membranes. Within the mesophyll cells lies the chloroplast where photosynthesis takes place.- Calvin Cycle is the second part of photosynthesis where CO2 is fixed using ATP and NADPH2. This cycle produces a sugar (CH2O).Lecture 12 (September 24)Where is DNA located? Explain the path of protein synthesis. What is mitosis? Cytokinesis? Explain the stages of mitosis.- DNA is located in the nucleus.- DNA starts out in nucleolus and is changed into mRNA and then exists nuclear membrane to be transformed into proteins by ribosomes- Mitosis is copying of the nucleus; consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase- Cytokinesis is the splitting of the nucleus, forming two daughter cells; in plant cells, vesicles containing cell wall material come together after nucleus splits to form new cell wall- Prophase: DNA packages itself into well-defined chromosomes Metaphase: chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate Anaphase: sister chromatids of chromosomes separate toward opposite poles of cell Telophase: chromosomes condense in new nucleusLecture 13 (September 26)How does cancer come about? What two things have to happen for this to be? What is meiosis? What are the steps in meiosis I and II? What are homologous chromosomes? - Cancer represents a failure of cells to limit their multiplication in the cell cycle. Conditions required for this to happen are Control mechanisms that induce cell division must become hyperactive (Oncogenes – accelerate the cell cycle). Mechanisms that suppress cell division must fail (Tumor suppressor genes fail).- Meiosis is preparation for sexual reproduction; chromosomes are reduced by half in formation of haploid gametes in animals or spores in plants- Meiosis 1 and 2:o- Homologous chromosomes come exclusively in pairs; they consist of diploid species that have matching pairs of chromosomes and carry corresponding