STUDY GUIDE FOR EXAM 2 CHAPTER 5 Classical conditioning type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another Stimulus any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds US any stimulus that without prior learning will automatically elicit or bring forth an UR UR unlearned response CS learned stimulus CR learned response Higher order conditioning neutral stimulus could become a CS simply by pairing it with a previously acquired CS Extinction behavior that disappears all together Spontaneous recovery reappearance of an extinguished response in a weaker form when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period Generalization in classical conditioning the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus Discrimination the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli Learned classically conditioned taste aversions intense dislike and or avoidance of a particular food that has been associated with nausea or discomfort Shaping learning tricks in small steps rather than all at once Positive reinforcement an increase in behavior that results from an added consequence Negative reinforcement increase in behavior reinforcement that is brought about by the subtraction of something that is typically unpleasant Positive punishment a decrease in behavior that results from an added consequence Negative punishment a decrease in behavior that results from a removed consequence Learned helplessness a passive resignation to aversive conditions that is learned through repeated exposure to inescapable or unavoidable aversive events Operant conditioning the process through which consequences increase or decrease the frequency of a behavior Watson Rayner s 1920 Little Albert the White Rat experiment showed the little boy a white rat and every time the boy tried to touch the rat they would make a loud noise making the little boy scared of anything that is white After 30 days less intense fears White rat CS loud noise US fear UR CR Schedules of reinforcement systematic processes for administering reinforcement Fixed ratio schedule a reinforce is given after a fixed number of correct non reinforced responses Variable ratio schedule a reinforce is provided after a varying number of nonreinforced responses Partial reinforcement behaviors that are acquired through variable reinforcement are highly resistant to extinction Fixed interval effect a specific period of time must pass before a response is reinforced Variable interval schedule a reinforcer is given after the first correct response following a varying time of nonreinforced responses Bandura s Bobo Doll experiments there were 2 groups One watched someone kick punch and hit a doll and the other watched the person be nice to the doll The kids that were showed aggressive behavior were much more aggressive than the kids who didn t see that behavior CHAPTER 6 Atkinson Shiffrin s information processing model of memory The three memory processes Encoding transformation of information into a form that can be stored in memory Storage keeping or maintaining information in memory Retrieval occurs when information stored in memory is brought to mind The three memory systems Sensory memory everything we see hear or otherwise sense Brief but in detail Short term memory what you are thinking about right now Working memory 7 2 items capacity Long term memory person vast storehouse of permanent or relatively permanent memories no limit Chunking organizing or grouping separate bits of information into larger units or chunks The levels of processing model the memory model that describes maintenance rehearsal as shallow processing and elaborative rehearsal as deep processing Ways to test memory Context dependent memory the tendency to encode elements of the physical setting in which information is learned along with memory of the information itself State dependent memory emotional state that a person was in when she formed a memory affects her ability to recall it Memory as reconstruction act of bringing stored information to mind involves piecing together a plausible representation of an object or event based on fragmentary information Autobiographical memories recollections that a person includes in an account of his or her own life Ebbinghaus research used nonsense syllables plotted forgetting curve First much forgetting than rate of forgetting slows down Memory failures encoding decay retrieval two kinds of interference Encoding info was never put into LTM Decay fading of memory trace not LTM if not used then disappear Interference when information stored either before or after a given memory can hinder the ability to remember it Proactive interference old interferes with new Retroactive new interferes with old Long term potentiation blocking increase in efficiency of neural transmission at the synapses that lasts for hours or longer Amnesia general term that can signify either a partial or total loss of memory Retrograde can from new memories but they cannot remember the past Anterograde inability to store new information Dementia collection of neurological disorders in which degenerative processes in the brain diminish people s ability to remember and process information Infantile amnesia inability of older children and adults to recall events from the first few years of life Maintenance rehearsal works well for remembering telephone numbers and license plate numbers particularly when the information is needed for only a short time Elaborative rehearsal involves relating new information to something you already know The two serial position effects Primacy effect the tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle Recency effect the tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in middle The misinformation effect misleading information that is inadvertently supplied to an eyewitness during the process of an investigators interview can result in erroneous recollections of the actual event The DOOR method of remembering Distribute your practice Overlearn go beyond mastery Organize garbage in garbage out Recite play an active role as a learner CHAPTER 7 Concepts Formal concept one that is clearly defined by a set of rules a formal definition