CHAPTER 14 STUDY GUIDE: Emotion, Reward, Aggression & Stress- What is the difference between the arousal level of an emotion and the valence of an emotion? o arousal level: amount of physical responseo valence: positive (attractive) or negative (aversive) reaction to an object or event- Which brain pathways/brain regions control voluntary and spontaneous facial expressions? o voluntary: motor cortex inputo spontaneous: subcortical (basil ganglia) - What is the difference between volitional facial paralysis and emotional facialparalysis?o volitional facial paralysis: the ability to express voluntary emotion is impaired, but spontaneous expression is NOT impaired o emotional facial paralysis: the ability to express spontaneous is impaired, but voluntary expression is NOT impaired- Are emotions mostly learned based on culture or are they universal? What evidence supports this?o emotions universal  people from Western and non-Western literate groups tend to agree about the emotions represented by photographs of facial expressions blind infants express emotions at the same time as sighted infants infants protest separation from mothers at the same time across cultures- Which brain system is important for emotional processing? Which brain regions are most crucial?o emotional processing limbic systemo crucial brain regions thalamus & cortex- What types of emotions are experienced when the amygdala is activated? Without a healthy amygdala, what types of emotions do people not experience?o amygdala activation fear & anxietyo damage to the amygdala difficulty identifying fear & anger expressions urbach-weithe disease: arousal is displayed when startled, but the ability to learn a conditioned emotional response is impaired- What brain region is necessary for fear learning to occur? In which sub-region of this structure does LTP occur to associate fearful stimuli to non-noxious contextual stimuli? What type of learning is this?o fear learning amygdala o long-term potentiation (LTP): the lateral amygdala strengthens associations between shock & non-noxious stimuluso sub region LA (lateral nucleus) & CE (central nucleus) auditory thalamus & cortex somatosensory thalamus & cortex- Is the anterior cingulate cortex involved in emotion? What is its role and when is it activated? o serves as a gateway between the limbic structures & PFCo active when we express emotiono damage may be implicated in psychopathyo same regions activated by physical and emotional paino right ACC is larger in people who score high in harm avoidance- Which hemisphere of the brain is emotion lateralized to?o emotional lateralization cerebral cortex left hemisphere damage= depression right hemisphere damage= surprisingly cheerful- What is stress? Is it always bad?o stress: state of threatened homeostasis, following exposure to extrinsic or intrinsic adverse forces unpleasant and disruptive state resulting from the perception of danger or threat condition in the environment that makes unusual demands on the organism, such as threat, failure, or bereavemento stressors: sources of stress, which can be physical or psychological o acute stress may be beneficial- increases immune system activity increases number of immune-responsive cells- What are the two main bodily systems that control the stress response? Which two main classes of hormones are released in response to activating the two stress systems?1) Sympathetic Nervous Systema. norepinephrine (non-adrenaline)b. epinephrine (adrenaline)i. increase output from the heartii. liberate glucose from muscles for addtl. energy2) Hypothalamic Pituitary Axisa. cortisoli. increases energy by converting proteins to glucose, increasing fat availability, and increasing metabolism ii. long-term energy increase for sustained stress- What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) in the stress response? What changes in the body result from SNS activation?Which endocrine gland releases stress hormones?o Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) stressors lead to SNS activation adrenal medulla releases 2 catecholamines:1) adrenaline2) nonadrenaline increases in heart rate, blood flow, and respiration rate help the person deal with the stressful situation- What are the main hormones in the HPA axis? o corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) affects the anterior pituitary, which releases…o adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in response to ACTH, the adrenal glands release…o cortisol influences many neurons in the brain, increasing the release of several neurotransmitters- How does negative feedback on the HPA axis work? Which hormone is responsible? Which brain regions does it act in?o Negative Feedback- hippocampus contains receptors for glucocorticoids, such as cortisol (GRs) when the hippocampus binds cortisol, it acts to inhibit CRH release by the hypothalamus with less CRH, less ACTH & cortisol will be released amygdala stimulates CRH release in the PVN- What is the difference between acute and chronic stress?o acute stress: the most common form of stress that comes from the demands & pressures of the recent past and anticipated demands & pressures of the near futureo chronic stress: the response to emotional pressure suffered for a prolonged period over which an individual perceives he or she has no control endocrine system response releases corticosteroids- Social stressors (difficult job, city living etc) are usually which type?o acute stress- How does chronic stress alter the hippocampus? What problems do these changes in the hippocampus lead to?o cortisol increases the amount of calcium entering neurons- too much can be toxico neurons in the hippocampus are particularly vulnerable to stress, impacting negative feedback of stress response- What does diathesis-stress refer to? In relation to psychological and brain health, what are some examples of diathesis? o it is an attempt to explain behavior as a predispositional vulnerability together with stress from life experiences. depression suicide- Are there critical periods for HPA axis development? o prenatalo neonatalo adult- What is the ACE study? o adverse childhood experiences study (ACE): one of the largest studies analyzing the relationship between childhood trauma and the risk for physical and mental illness in adulthood- Does the ACE study measure the gene (diathesis) or environment (stress)