IntroBiological Psychology- studies the biological foundation of behavior, emotions, and mental processesMind-Body Dualism- DescartesPhrenology- Gall and Spurzheim. Brain mapping method. Led to localizationThe Seductive Allure of NeuroscienceVisual complexityReal dataBad neuroscience- easy to findResearch MethodsLevels of analysis-Molecular  synaptic  cellular  circuit  systems  organ  environmentStructure- how is it built/connected? What does it look like?Function- how does it work/ what does it do?Ablation- (physical) removal of brain tissueLesion- damage to neural tissue. Accidental/intentional, biochemical/neurotoxic, electrolyticStereotaxic surgery- holds animal in place to find specific coordinatesInfusion- puts chemicals directly into the brainMicrodialysis- measures neurotransmitters in brainHistology- the study of microscopic structures and tissuesStructure, organization, and connections of cellsHistological Process- tissue must be:1. Fixed (solidified) by adding formalin or paraformaldehyde/freezing2. Sliced thin by a vibrating microtome or cryostat3. Mounted on microscope slides4. Processed with appropriate chemicals5. Viewed with a microscopegolgi silver stain- random single cells. Black reaction. Darkly stains full neuron, useful for single cell imaging. Randomly stains about 5%.myelin stains- axon/fiber tracts. Stains fatty myelin sheath that forms insulation around axons. Dark- axons, fiber tracts. Light- cell bodies, dendrites. Identifies neural pathwaysnissl stains- cell bodies/nuclei. Stains cell bodies of neurons by darkening material in nucleus. Identifying populations of cell bodies.Electroencephlaograph (EEG)- measures the summed graded potentials from many thousands of neurons. Changes as behavior changes. Displays an array of patterns. Living brain never silent.Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)- related to specific sensory event. Repeated stimulus presentations averaged. Function.Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)- coil over skull applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields that can enhance or interrupt brain function.Magnetoencephalography (MEG)- neural activity, generates electrical field and produces magnetic field. Recorded from detectors permits 3D. higher resolution than ERP. High cost.Single Cell/multi unit recordings- fine wire electrodes. Amplify and filter, dignitize and store. Correlate physiology with behavioral/cognitive events.Static Imaging Techniques:Computed Tomography CT- uses multiple x rays at many different angles to construct 3D image. Bone and soft tissue. More risks than MRI but 10 x cheaper.Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI- high resolution, static, 3D image. Passes strong magnetic through brain, then radio wave, then measures movement emitted from hydrogen atoms.Diffusion Tensor Imaging DTI- detects the directional movements of water molecules to image nerve fiber pathways in the brain. Identifies abnormalities in neural pathwaysDynamic Brain Imaging:Positron Emission Tomography PET- radioactive protein or glucose molecules are injected into blood stream. Detects changes in metabolism by measuring uptake of radioactive molecules. Expensive.Functional MRI fMRI- uses magnetic fields and blood oxygenation level dependent response to visualize brain activity.Potential problems- neural correlates of interspecies perspective taking in the postmortem atlantic salmon. Need advance statistics.Knock in- genetic modification. Functioning gene inserted into animal cells (gene transfer)Knock out- genetic modification. Nonfunctioning mutation introduced to isolated gene, transferred to embryosOptogenetics1. Genetic construct2. Insert construct into virus3. Inject virus into animal brain4. Insert optrode5. Laser lightResearch with humans- IRB, consent, minimize pain/discomfort/risk, deception, debriefingWhy animals? – controlled environment, homogenous, briefer development and lifespan, ethical mattersAnimal guidelines- IACUC, minimal N, humane, careful attention to health and welfare, minimize stress/discomfortAnatomy and EvolutionRostral/anterior → head of four legged animalCaudal/posterior → tail of four legged animalDorsal/superior → back of four legged animalVentral/inferior → belly of four legged animalMedial → towards the middleLateral ← towards the sidesProximal → near core or trunk of bodyDistal → extremitiesIpsilateral – same sideContralateral – opposite sideSagittal sections are parallel to the midlineCoronal sections divide brain crosswise from front to back, parallel to the faceHorizontal sections brain from top to bottom.Natural selection- favors the organism with highest degree of fitnessPeripheral Nervous SystemCentral (CNS)- brain and spinal cord. Encased by skull, vertebrea, and bonesPeripheral (PNS) nerves connecting CNS to muscles, organs, and skin. Sensory, Motor, AutonomicNerve- bundle of axons in the PNSTract- bundle of axons in the CNSGanglion- group of cell bodies in PNSNucleus – group of cell bodies in CNSSomatic - Somatosensory and skeletal motorAutonomic- Glands and organs. Sympathetic / parasympathetic. Two divisions: Sympathetic, Parasympathetic. Control involuntary functions. Heartbeat, blood pressure, respiration, perspiration, digestion. Can be influenced by emotionSympathetic-Fight /flight responseRelease adrenaline and norepinephrine↑ heart rate and blood pressure↑ blood flow to skeletal musclesInhibits digestive functionsParasympathetic-Rest and digestCalms body to conserve and maintain energyRelease acetylcholine↓ HR and BPStimulates digestionBlood Brain Barrier- Tight junctions between astroctyes and endothelial cells along capillaries. Keeps out large molecules. Active transport for some essential nutrients. Some drugs can cross, most cannot.MeningesDura Mater – wet leather hard to cut throughArachnoid mater- spider like mother, fiber structuresPia mater – difficult to see, so thin, directly on spine/brainCerebrospinal fluid- Made by choroid plexus (in ventricles). Similar composition to clear plasma of bloodFunctions: Protective, nutritive, excretory, cushionAfferent (Sensory) – go toward CNS from sensory receptors. Sometimes myelinatedEfferent (Motor) – go out from CNS to muscles and organs. Always myelinatedCranial nerves- 12 pairs. Exit/enter directly from brain. Sensory, Motor, or both (Some say married money but my big brother says big brains matter more)Olfactory (Sensory)- smellOptic (Sensory)- visionOculomotor (Motor)- eye