LearningChange in an organism’s behavior or thought as a result of experienceoccurs when parallel fibers & climbing fibers activate Purkinje cells simultaneouslyEventually causes disinhibition of Lateral Interpositus Nucleus à increased activation of the CSNonassociative- Change in magnitude of response to environmental events (habituation and sensitization)Habituation- Becoming less sensitive to a steady or repeated stimulus over time to allow the brain to learn new info (800 axon terminals)Sensitization- Experience of one stimulus heightens the response to a subsequent stimulus so brain can focus on dangerous stimuli (2800 axon terminals)Associative- Connection between two elements or events (classical and operant conditioning)Classical Conditioning-Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)- Event that elicits response without prior experienceUnconditioned Response (UCR)- Unlearned reaction to a UCSConditioned Stimulus (CS)- Initially neutral stimulus that acquires the ability to signal important biological eventsConditioned Response (CR)- Learned reaction to a CSOperant Conditioning- Consequences of a behavior shape future performanceReinforcementPositive: increases likelihood of behavior by adding something desirableNegative: increases likelihood of behavior by removing something undesirablePunishment- Decreases likelihood of behaviorEngram: The physical trace of each memory in the brainMemories are NOT located in one single part of the brainDistribution of memories- neurons connect to other neurons and lead to activationMemory and PlasticityMemory- retention of info over timeThe Hebb Rule- neurons that fire together wire togetherLong Term Potentiation- increase in synaptic strength following repeated high frequency stimulationDevelops rapidly, associated with memory parts of the brain***GLUTAMATE ESSENTIAL IN LTPAMPA first then NDMA second (two glutamate receptors)Long Term Depression- decrease in the strength of a synapse that occurs when an axon of a neuron is active while the postsynaptic neuron is NOT depolarizedLong term memoryDeclarative memory: (Explicit) learning that results in memories of facts, people, and events that a person can verbalize or declare.Nondeclarative memory: (implicit) Memories for behaviors that a person cannot verbalize or declare.Consolidation: Process by which brain forms a physical representation of a memory (storing)Retrieval: Process of accessing stored memories (remembering)Mechanisims:Increased activation of hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus- Activity levels predict later rememberingNMDA Glutamate Receptors in hippocampus- Antagonist impairs memoryPrefrontal Cortex- Activated during effortful attempts at retrievalAmygdala- Enhances hippocampal activity in emotional memoriesWorking Memory: temporary register for information while it is being usedTemporarily stored in hippocampusTypes of Memory loss:Retrograde amnesia: Loss of memories from our past (retro=backwards)Anterograde amnesia: Inability to encode new memories from our experiences (antero= forwards)Hippocampus – specific personal experiences from a particular time and placeCortex- world knowledge object knowledge language knowledge conceptual primingBasal Ganglia- motor and cognitive skillsSensory systems- perceptual primingCerebellum- conditioned responses between two stimuliReflex pathways – habituation sensitizationHormones and SexSex: Biological Characteristic of being male of femaleGender: Sociocultural characteristic of being masculine or feminineTurner Syndrome- Normal female external genitalia but abnormal ovaries. Infertile. Normal intelligence, deficits in spatial relationships and memoryKlinefelter Syndrome- Male with reduced fertility. Requires hormone treatment at puberty to develop secondary sex characteristics and inhibit female characteristics. Normal intelligence but social awkwardness, delayed or reduced verbal skillsXYY- Subtle physical and behavioral correlates. Controversial association with antisocial behaviorStages of Prenatal Development-The Development of GonadsSex determining region of Y chromosome expressed at 6 weeks gestationTestis-Determining factor protein turns primordial gonads into testesDifferentiation of Internal OrgansWolffian system develops into seminal vesiclesMüllerian sytem develops into uterus, upper vagina, and fallopian tubesSex of a baby- 18 – 22 weeks. Gender takes longer to determine.Androgen: Type of steroid hormone that develops and maintains typically masculine characteristics or sexual interestAndrogen Insensitivity Syndrome- XY genotype, functioning testes but no receptors. disrupts normal development of the Wolffian system. female appearance and gender identityDevelopment of external genitalia- No hormonal activity required for female genitalia. 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone needed for development of male genitalia. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH): genetic females exposed prenatally to excess androgens, leads to masculinized genitaliaGonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) released by the hypothalamusFollicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) have different effects in males and femalesSex Hormones- organized in prenatal life and activated in puberty. Steroids.Synthesis- Cholesterol  progesterone  testosterone  estradiolRegulation- hypothalamus and pituitary glandMenstrual cycles- ovulation occurs 2 weeks after first day of periodPremenstrual Syndrome (PMS): physical and psychological symptoms immediately prior to the onset of menstruationPremenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD): premenstrual mood changes are unusually severe, affecting daily lifePostpartum Depression: new mothers experience feelings of depression due to rapidly changing hormonal environmentFemale Sexual behavior-Sexual interest- little control by hormones, slightly more interest during ovulation. Testosterone has greatest effect.Male sexual behavior- testosterone increases in anticipation of competition. Increases in winners and decreases in losers.Anabolic steroids- synthetic versions of testosterone that build up tissue. Improve recovery time after muscle injury, build strengthMasculinization of the brain - Aromatization masculinizes brains of many animals Testosterone is transformed into estradiol producing masculinization. Androgens play a greater role in the masculinization of the human brainPrenatal exposure to androgens influences adult sexual behavior- 2D: 4D ratioProblems with Levay’s study - INAH-3 is too small to