THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP:The Meaning of LeadershipLeadership as a process: What Leaders actually doUsing non-coercive influence to shape the group’s or organization’s goalsMotivating others’ behavior toward goalsHelping to define organizational cultureLeaders are people who can influence the behaviors of others without having to rely on forceLeadership as a property: Who leaders areCharacteristics attributed to individuals perceived as leadersLeaders are people who are accepted as leaders by others;LEADERSHIP & POWERPower is the ability to affect the behavior of othersLegitimate power - is granted through the organizational hierarchyReward power – is the power to give or withhold rewards; [CEO’s Assistant, Presidents Chief of Staff]Coercive Power - is the capability to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threatReferent Power - is the personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charismaExpert power - is derived from the possession of information or expertise;USING POWERLegitimate Request – a subordinates compliance with a managers request because the organization has given the manager the right to make the request.Instrumental Compliance – a subordinate complies with a managers request to get the rewards that the manager controls;Coercion – threatening to fire, punish, or reprimand subordinates if they do not do something;Rational Persuasion – convincing subordinates compliance is in their best interest;Personal Identification – using the superiors referent power to shape a subordinates behaviorInspirational Appeal – influencing a subordinates behavior through an appeal to a set of higher ideals or values (Loyalty)Information Distortion – withholding or distorting information (which may create an unethical situation) to influence subordinates behavior;GENERIC APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIPLeadership Traits Approach –Assumed that – a basic set of personal traits that differentiated leaders from non-leaders could be used to identify leaders and as a tool for predicting who would become leadersThe trait approach didn’t establish empirical relationships between traits and persons regarded as leadersThe “Great Man” Approach – hundreds of studies boil down to five common traitsIntelligenceSelf-confidenceDeterminationIntegritySociabilityLEADERSHIP BEHAVIORSMichigan Studies – identified two forms of leader behaviorJob-Centered Behavior – managers who pay close attention to subordinates work, explain work procedures, and are keenly interested in performanceEmployee-Centered Behavior – managers who focus on the development of cohesive work groups and employee satisfactionThe two forms of leader behaviors were considered to be at opposite ends of the same column.Ohio State Studies – did not interpret leader behavior as being one-dimensional as did the Michigan studiesInitial research assumption: leaders who exhibit high levels of both behaviors would be most effective leaders.Identified two basic leadership styles that can be exhibited simultaneouslyInitiating-Structure Behavior – the leader clearly defines the leader-subordinate role expectations, formalizes communications, and sets the working agendaConsideration Behavior – the leader shows concern for subordinates and attempts to establish a friendly and supportive climate;Initial assumption of the research was that leaders who exhibit high levels of both behaviors would be most effective leaders;Subsequent Research Indicated that:Employees of supervisors ranked high on initiating structure were high performers, but had low levels of satisfaction and had higher absenteeism.Employees of supervisors ranked high on consideration had low-performance ratings, but had high levels of satisfaction and had less absenteeism.Other situational variables make consistent leader behavior predictions difficultSITUATIONAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIPSituational Model of Leader BehaviorAssume that : appropriate leader behavior depends on the situation; situational factors that determine appropriate leader behavior can be identifiedLeadership Continuum (Tannebaum and Schmidt)Continuum identifies a range of levels of leadership from boss-centered to subordinate-centered leadershipVariables influencing the decision-making continuum:Leaders Characteristics – value system, confidence in subordinates, personal inclinations, and feelings of securitySubordinates Characteristics – independence needs, readiness for responsibility, tolerance of ambiguity, interest in the problem, understanding goals, knowledge, experience, and expectationsSituational Characteristics – type of organization, group effectiveness, the problem itself, and time pressures;Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)Assumed that leadership style is fixed and situation must be changed to favor leaderAppropriate leadership style varies with situational favorableness (from the leaders viewpoint)LPC scale asks leaders to describe the person with whom they are least able to work wellHigh scale scores indicate a relationship orientation; Low scores indicate a task orientation on the part of the leaderSituational Favorableness is determined byLeader-Member Relations : the nature of the relationship b/t the leader and the work groupTask Structure – the degree to which the groups task is definedPosition Power - the power vested in the leaders positionPath-Goal Theory (EVANS AND HOUSE)Primary Functions of a Leader are :To make valued or desired rewards available in the workplaceTo clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment or rewardsLeader BehaviorsDirective Leader Behavior – letting subordinates know what is expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling workSupportive Leader Behavior – being friendly and approachable, having concern for subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as equalsParticipative Leader Behavior – consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision makingAchievement-Oriented Leader Behavior : setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging and showing confidence in subordinatesVrooms Decision Tree ApproachAttempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a given situation;Basic Premises:Subordinate participation in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situationNo one decision-making process is best