Glaciers and GlaciationGlaciersTypes of GlaciersGlacier DynamicsProperties of IceCrevasses, Seracs, and OgivesMorainesMountain Glacial LandformsIce AgesPrevious Ice AgesCauses of Ice AgesEccentricityPast Climate HistoryWater (H2O)CO2 VariationVostok (Antarctica) Ice CoreGlacial TermsChapter 16Glaciers and GlaciationGlaciers•A glacier is a large, permanent (non-seasonal) mass of ice that is formed on land and moves under the force of gravity. •Glaciers may form anywhere that snow accumulation exceeds seasonal melt.Types of Glaciers•Alpine glaciers form in the mountains. –A valley glacier is one that occupies a valley, –An ice cap is a mass of ice that occupies a high mountain area and flows outward in several directions. •Continental glaciers (ice sheets) may cover large sections of continents as in Greenland and Antarctica.East GreenlandGlacier Dynamics•A typical valley glacier will add snow at its head and lose to melt at its foot. •The snow line is the line below which the annual snow cover is lost in summer. •The region above the snowline is the zone of accumulation; the region below the zone of wastage (melting, sublimation, calving). •If it gains more than it loses, its terminus will advance. •If it loses more than it gains, it will retreat.Glacier DynamicsProperties of Ice•Ice has a density of 0.96 g/cm3. (It floats.)•Ice is a weak solid and will not hold a vertical cliff higher than 40m (130ft).•Ice will flow under it own weight.•Pressure can cause local melting.Crevasses, Seracs, and Ogives•A crevasse is a fracture in the glacier surface.–Crevasses form where the surface is in tension.–Crevasses are rarely more than about 40 m deep.–A bergschrund is a crevasse at the head (top) of a glacier.•A serac is a large, irregular block of ice formed by intersecting crevasses•An ogive is compressional wave in the glacier surface.CrevassesSeracBergschrundOgivesMoraines•A moraine is a deposit of unsorted (silt- to boulder-size) material (till) left by a glacier.–Lateral moraines are left at the sides of glaciers–Medial moraines are left in the centers.–Terminal moraines are left at the ends.Lateral MorainesMountain Glacial Landforms•Glacial valleys have a characteristic U-shape.•A hanging valley is the valley of a tributary glacier.•A cirque is a steep-walled bowl-shaped valley at the head of a glacier.•An arête is a narrow ridge between two cirques.•A horn is a peak at the intersection of arêtes.•A fjord is a glacial valley that opens to the sea.Mountain Glacial Landforms:U-shaped &HangingValleysMountain Glacial Landforms:ArêteMountain Glacial Landforms:HornMountain Glacial Landforms:NunatakMountain Glacial Landforms:CirqueMountain Glacial Landforms:FjordKangerluqsuaqE. GreenlandIce Ages•The last 1.8 million years of geologic time (Pleistocene) are the Ice Ages.•The last major ice advance in North America peaked about 18,000 years ago.•Climate warmed abruptly at 14,500 years ago.•It cooled again and then warmed abruptly (~6ºC) at about 11,500 to near current levels.•The last remnants of the North American Ice sheets melted away less than 7000 years ago.Previous Ice Ages•Permian (300 million years)•Neo-Proterozoic (570 million years)•Archaean-Proterozoic boundary?Previous Ice AgesStriations from Permian Glaciation in NamibiaCauses of Ice Ages•Milankovich Cycles–Eccentricity of orbit (100,000 y cycle).–Tilt of rotation axis (41,000 y cycle).–Precession of rotation axis (23,000 y cycle).•CO2variation.•Continental drift and polar continents.•Ocean Circulation patternsEccentricityTiltPrecessionContinental Drift and Ocean CirculationContinental DriftPast Climate History•18O/16O Variation in Ice Cores–Oxygen isotopes are fractionated by evaporation and precipitation.–The vapor prefers the lighter isotope.–Cold global temperatures deplete 18O in ice and enrich it in ocean water.–Isotope variation can be measured in ice cores and in ocean sediments.•CO2variation can be measured in gas bubbles in ice.•Both methods provide evidence of large variation in global temperaturesWater (H2O)•1H, 2H•16O, 17O, 18O•18(H2O)•19(H2O)•20(H2O)•21(H2O)•22(H2O)•Light water evaporates more quicklyCO2Variation•Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas.–It transmits visible and UV radiation–It blocks IR radiation.•CO2variation correlates with global temperature.Vostok (Antarctica) Ice CoreBlack: CO2Blue: TemperatureRed: DustGlacial Terms•Glacier•Alpine Glacier•Ice Cap•Ice Sheet•Horn•Arête•Cirque•Fjord•Snow Line•Sublimation•Calving•Crevasse•Bergschrund•Serac•Ogive•Till•Drumlin•Esker•Kettle•Hanging
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