PSYC 2606: EXAM 1
147 Cards in this Set
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B=PxS
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Behavior is determined by personality and situation
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Construals
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An individuals interpretation of something
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Correlation
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Measure of how much 1 variable influences another.
(+1) correlation means the 2 variables imply eachother
(0) correlation means the variables have no impact
(-1) correlation means the 2 variables negate eachother
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Correlation vs. Causation
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correlation - two variables in relation to eachother
causation - one variable results in another
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Deception
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when participants are misled about the nature of the test they are participating in
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Social Psychology
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scientific study of the feelings thoughts and behaviors of individuals in social situations
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Evolutionary Psychology
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perspective that human behavior and psychology are traits that evolved as a result of natural selection
e.g. fear evolved to make us cautious in dangerous situations
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Experiments
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study that seeks to isolate the effects of one variable (such as posture) on another variable (such as self confidence)
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External Validity
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When the population of a study are representative of the group that is trying to be studied
eg/ when studying college students are gender, race, age, major all proportionately represented
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Gender Roles and naturalistic fallacy
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Idea that things are the way they should be as a result of biology, specifically to support male priveledge
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Independent Cultures
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generally western
focus on self
individual is a distinct social entity connected to others by choice
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Informed Consent
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Peoples right to have all aspects of a study explained to them before participating
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Interdependent culture
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generally eastern
individual is viewed as part of a collective (such as family, country, company)
individual is more identified by social roles
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IRB
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Institutional Review Board
group containing at least 1 scientist, non-scientist, and unaffiliated person
review research proposal to make judgement of ethical appropriateness
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Measurement Validity
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The degree to which a test or study measures what it set out to measure
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Naturalistic observation
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Studies done of behavior without experimental interference or control of environment
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Parental Investment
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Idea that reproduction takes investment of resources and time
generally greater in women than men
maternal instincts and a more caring personality in females can be attributed to PI
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Person - Situation interaction
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persons behavior in a situation is a result of the interaction of their personal traits or characteristics and the environment of the social situation
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Random Assignment
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Participants in study are just as likely to be placed in experimental group as control group
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Reliability
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The degree to which an experimental measure is likely to yield consistent results
e.g. if you take 2 IQ tests they should give roughly the same score
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Schemas
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idea or template of what is supposed to happen in a situation
eg. when going on a first date, mind has a rough idea of how things should proceed
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Situation
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interaction between self, others and environment
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Surveys
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questionaire used to obain large quantities of data by asking questions to asses variables related to a hypothesis
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Theory of Mind
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The understanding that other people have their own unique sets of beliefs and desires
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"what is beautiful is good" heuristic
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The common belief that attractive individuals are better than the average
e.g./ they get paid better, are deemed more trust worthy, more capable
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Attribution and Covariation model
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The tendency to try to determine what causes (either unique to an individual or environmental) correspond to an observed behavior
eg/ they must be acting angry and irritable because of the bad grade they just recieved
or
everyone in this line must be irritable because of how hot it is …
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Attribution
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Explanation of a behavior
eg/ that guy cut me off because he is an asshole
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Availability heuristic
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The likelihood of an event is judged by how easily an example from personal experience comes to mind
eg/ more tornados must happen in kansas, because I can easily remember the tornado from a wizard of oz
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Bad-news Bias
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good news is boring
we are impacted more by bad news
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Central Traits
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Characteristics of a persons personality that remain unchanged from situation to situation
eg. warm or cold
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Chronic Accesibility
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schemas and ideas that are used often enough to become automatic when interpreting behavior
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Cognitive Miser
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only small amounts of information are actually used when making decisions, much of the information is automatically processed
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Confirmation Bias
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Tendency to pick out information which confirms our pre-existing ideas
eg/ confirming stereotypes while ignoring the majority of behavior
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Confirmation Bias and Ambiguous behavior
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when faced with ambiguous behavior, the tendency to attribute it to whatever pre-concieved notion is held of someone
eg/ a typically angry person who is saying very little = must be angry
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Culture and Attribution
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Non-western cultures tend to pay more attention to the situation and the attitudes of others when attributing behavior, whereas western cultures tend to attribute behavior more exclusively to the individual (and therefor are more likely to misattribute)
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Framing effect
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Interpretation of information is effected by the context and order it is presented in.
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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Tendency to overly attribute behavior to a persons character, rather than the situation or present state
eg/ that person who just cut me off is an asshole by nature, rather than in a hurry to see his dying mother
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Gamblers Fallacy
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Tendency to belief that a certain result of chance is due
eg/ 6 tails in a row means the 7th flip is bound to be heads
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Ideological Distortions
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process of accentuating some details of a story and smoothing over others based on a secondary agenda
eg/ describing the cliff you jumped snowboarding in detail while leaving out the fall you took 3 feet after landing
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Illusion of transperancy
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tendency for people to overestimate how obvious their mental state and intentions are to those around them
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Impression formation
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process by which we form our concepts of others by combining available information
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Motivated Tactician
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Model of cognition that varies between cognitive miser and naive scientist
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Naive scientist
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use of rational, cause and effect reasoning in order to interpret their environment
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Peripheral Traits
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descriptive categories not necessarily core to the personality
eg/ polite or blunt
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Primacy Effect
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disproportionate significance given to information received first
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Priming
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the act of activating a concept to make it more accessible
eg/ activating the concept of a super model may lead people to construe themselves to be similar to super models
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Priming Culture
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the ability for those raised in both western and eastern cultures to think in either an independent or interdependent way depending on how they are primed
eg/
western-primed with cowboys and the white house
Eastern- primed with pagodas and dragons
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Recency effect
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Tendency for information heard last to be remembered most
eg/ list of 20 numbers, can only remember the last 3
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Representativeness Heuristic
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Judgement of a stimulus based on its resemblance to a stereo type
eg/ is this person a republican? he is white, middle aged, upper class and male which closely resembles my republican stereotype, so yes
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Secrecy Heuristic
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giving more weight to knowledge that was previously secret
eg/ declassified documents must be 100% true
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Self-Serving Bias
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Attributing success to personal qualities and failure to external factors
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System 1
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set of systems that respond without conscious effort
eg/ emotions, facial recognition, facial expressions
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System 2
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Slower more reasoned and deductive thinking
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Temporal Framing
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Effect of time on our judgement of things
long term - of course ill help you move, i want to help my friends
short term - i cant help you move today, i dont want to actually get out of bed
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Adjourning
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dissolution of a group after its purpose has been met
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Antecedents (conditions that lead to) of Groupthink
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high cohesiveness (everyone feels strongly connected)
Insulation (group is isolated from other ideas)
High stress and low hope of finding another alternative
Directive Leadership
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Approach/inhibition theory of power
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Power = control and freedom
High power = more likely to go after goals without second guessing
low power = more likely to be timid about pursuing goals and over think
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Authority
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Power that arises from institutionalized roles or arrangements
eg/ ranks in the army
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Collective Self Esteem
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how individuals evaluate the groups they belong to as well as how they think these groups are viewed by others
eg/ I am proud to be a member of the dungeons and dragons club
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Define: Group
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2 or more individuals
share common goal
share common fate
in a stable relationship
recognize that the group exists
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Diversity and group performance
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High Diversity improves creativity (eg.brainstorming)
good when tension is low and group is open and cooperative
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Dominance
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Behavior associated with trying to gain or demonstrate power
eg/ monkey beating his chest
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Dominant Response
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The most likely response a person is to make
*made even more likely by arrousal
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Entitativity
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Degree to which a group are united
eg/
high entitativity = marching band
low entitativity = people on a subway
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Evaluation Apprehension
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The fear that ones actions are being judged by onlookers and the concern at being judged negatively
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Forming
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initial coming together of a group, either formally or informally (the more organized the more formal)
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Group Polarization
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Tendency for a group with similar opinions to form much stronger opinions in the same direction after meeting
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Groupthink
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Faulty thinking by members in highly cohesive groups where group harmony is more important than critical examination
eg/ yes men all agreeing with the boss
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Groupthink in other cultures
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Often much more prevalent in collectivist cultures, where saving face and avoiding embarrassment are more important than voicing personal opinions
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Instrumental Needs
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Needs that are driven by goals rather than emotions
eg/ money
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Mortification events
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Initiation ritual that involves effort, pain and or humiliation in order to bind an individual to the group through shared experience
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Need to Belong
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individual trait that determines how important belonging is to a person
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Norming
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group process of agreeing on shared goals and norms to streamline group functionality
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Performing
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Stage in which a group produces and sustains their goal
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Power
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The ability to control the outcomes of our lives as well as those of others. the freedom to act
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Preventing Group Thinking
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Bring in outside sources of ideas
play devils advocate
divide into smaller groups
encourage critical evaluation
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Social Facilitation
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arousal resulting from the mere presence of others
difficult/novel tasks - performance inhibited
Simple/learned tasks - preformance is boosted
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Status
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hierarchy of respect that results from the comparison of attributes
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Storming
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Initial conflicting phase of group development, in which roles and goals are decided upon
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Symptoms of Groupthink
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shallow examination of information
narrow consideration of alternatives
sense of invulnerability and moral superiority
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Symptoms of defective group decision makin
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when group members are more concerned with how the others in the group will judge them as opposed to reaching the correct conclusion
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Who becomes a leader?
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Those with important skills and expertise in the area of the groups concern
individuals who can build and maintain cooperative relationships
individuals who share selflessly
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Why people join groups?
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Fills BUCkET need of belonging
prevalence in individual of trait: need to belong
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Wisdom of the Crowds
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Large groups can make better decisions on average in terms of having a large pool of data to pull averages from
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BIRGing
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Basking In Reflected Glory
alignment with a group after they experience success
eg/ I love the broncos! we killed the raiders last weekend!
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Collective Self
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Beliefs about our identities as members of social groups to which we belong
eg/ i am a trumpet player in the band
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BUCkET
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Belonging- urge to feel a part of something
Understanding- urge to understand and make sense of the world around us
Control- desire to feel in control of our situation. entails relationship between what we do and what we get
Enhancing Self- The desire to maintain our self-esteem or be …
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Contingencies of Self-Worth
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Self worth is evaluated based on indicators that are important to the individual
eg/ if im not the best swimmer on the team im not happy with myself
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CORFing
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Casting Off Reflected Failure
The process of distancing oneself from a group after their failure
eg/ The broncos suck, they barely even made a single touch down last game
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Culture & positive illusions
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Western - tend to rate themselves better than average, weigh abilities we excel at as more valuable
Eastern - less likely to experience illusion of being above average
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Culture and Self-Esteem
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Western (independent) - more likely to have higher self esteem, as culture place higher value on individual
Eastern (interdependent) - less likely to have high self esteem, not as concerned with the attributes of the individual
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Delayed Gratification
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situation in which exercising will power can lead to a reward in the long term
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Distinctiveness effect
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Tendency for people to think of themselves in terms of the attributes that distinguish them from others
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Dunning-Kruger Effect
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The more incompetent a person is, the more the over estimate their own competency
eg/ those that are the dumbest, think they're the smartest, and those that are the smartest tend to underestimate their own intelligence
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Fixed Mindset
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Perspective that qualities of self (eg/ intelligence, willpower) are set from birth and that changing this is beyond the power of the individual. tend to blame failures on external factors
ex/ good test grade - im a genius
bad test grade - my teacher sucks
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Growth Mindset
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Perspective that traits can be developed through effort
eg/ good test grade - i studied really hard
bad test grade - i need to study harder for the next test
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Ideal and Ought Self
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Ideal: individuals personal model for what they want to be
Ought: individuals model for how they think other want them to be
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Individual Self
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Beliefs about our unique personal traits, abilities, preferences, tastes, talents and so forth
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Is High Self Esteem Good?
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Different types
Can be good
eg/ not as likely to give up on tasks, take criticism
can be bad (when high self esteem is not warranted)
eg/ respond aggressively to threats to self esteem
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Positive Illusions
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1. over estimation of good qualities, underestimation of bad ones
2. higher value attributed to the individuals good qualities, lower value to those the individual lacks
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Private self awareness
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paying attention to oneself internally
can be brought on by awareness of emotions, mirrors, diary, high self consciousness trait
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Public Self Awareness
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Becoming conscious of other people watching you (or the belief that they are)
become concerned with physical appearance, adherence to social norms
Can lead to evaluation apprehension, lower self esteem
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Relational Self
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Beliefs about self concerning relationship with someone else
eg/ how good of a boyfriend am i?
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Self awareness
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state of realization that you are being observed and scrutinized
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Self-Complexity
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Degree to which an individuals character changes depending on their situation
high complexity- act very differently depending on context (generally respond to failure well, since character in other situation can be unaffected
Low complexity - remain the same over different situations (m…
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Self-Concept
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sum total of persons thoughts, feelings, strong identifications
eg/ i am a strong willed, independent black woman
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Self-Conciousness
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Personality trait which determines how much a person becomes self aware
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Self-Enhancement
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Process of improving self to better fit ideal or ought self
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Self-Esteem
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Positive or negative overall evaluations of an individuals self worth
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Self-Monitering
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Personality Trait that includes Strategic Self-Presentation, where the individual is aware of how they are presenting themselves
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Self-Reference effect
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Recall information better when it can be connected to the self
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Self-Regulation
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How we control our actions and self-presentation and work towards personal goals
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Self-Schema
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Knowledge of self, template of who we are
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Self-Serving construals
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Better than average-most (westerners) tend to perceive themselves as above average
Tend to value skills that we as individuals excel at as more important than those we suck at
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Self-Verification
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we seek to have others confirm beliefs about ourselves in order to maintain a cohesive image of the self
eg/ if we think were awkward we will act awkwardly so that people
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Social Comparisons
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The process of comparing oneself to others in order to gauge opinions, abilities and internal state
eg/everyone at this funeral is crying, i should also be sad
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State Self-Esteem
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Dynamic changeable degree to which we evaluate ourself worth
eg/ right after getting an A on a test, state self esteem is high
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Trait Self-esteem
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General degree of self esteem that stays relatively consistent across situations
eg/ a cocky person has high trait self-esteem regardless of whats happening
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Ways to improve willpower
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Practice exercising willpower on small decisions (eg. dont smoke weed tonight)
Abstract Reasoning (eg/ why am i studying? to get a good grade and ultimately graduate with a good degree and get a good job to live a happy life)
Uncluttered environment
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Affective Displays
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Emotional expressions which are universal
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Basic facial emotions
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universal facial expressions
-disgust, contempt, anger, fear, sadness, suprise, happiness
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Broaden and Build hypothesis
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idea that positive emotions broaden thoughts and actions to help build our emotional and intellectual resources which in turn help build our social resources
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Core-relational themes
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universal themes that define the essential purpose of each emotion
eg/ loss -> sadness
affection -> love
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Cultural approaches to emotion
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idea that culture effects emotional response and so each culture expresses emotions in different ways
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Display Rules
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Social and cultural norms for how and when emotion should be expressed
eg/ happiness at a funeral vs. dispair
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Duchenne Smile
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Genuine smile characterized by wrinkles around the eyes
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Emblems
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Non-verbal behaviors (such as gestures) that have direct verbal counterparts
eg/ the two fingers in america = peace sign
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Emotion Accents
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Culturally specific ways that individuals express emotions
eg/ biting tongue = embarrassment in india
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Emotions and moral judgements
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emotional reactions guide moral judgement
eg/ disgust at someones actions can inform our decision of proper punishment
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Evolutionary approach to emotions
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perspective that emotions are evolutionary adaptations that served human survival
eg/ fear helped to keep us safe
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Eye Gaze
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informs the meaning of facial expressions
eg/ angry and making eye contact = oh shit hes about to fight me
angry and looking somewhere else = oh shit hes about to fight someone
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Feelings as information
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theory that since many judgements are too complex to review all relevant info, system one processing takes emotions as information
eg/ i have a good feeling about this person = i choose to trust them
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Flirtation
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pattern of behavior both verbal (compliments) and nonverbal (touch) that communicate attraction to potential romantic partners
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Focal Emotions
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more common emotions within a culture
eg/ anger is more focal in honor-based cultures
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Hypercognition
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special cultural importance for specific emotions leads to a more refined understanding of them
eg/ culture that stresses happiness may distinguish between joy, ecstasy, benevolence
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Illustrators
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nonverbal gestures used to emphasize meaning
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infrahumanization
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tendency for humans to fail to attribute complex emotions (eg/sympathy, compassion, regret) to outgroup memebers
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Intergroup emotion theory
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missatribution of emotions by those outside of group
eg/ women thinking male sad faces were angry and males thinking female angry faces were sad
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Nonverbal Communication
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communication through
-posture
-gesture
-touching
-facial expression
-eye gaze
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Physiological arrousal
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biological responses to arrousal
-heart rate
-blood pressure
-gut tingles (butterflies)
-sweat
-dilated pupils
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Primary appraisal
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initial system one processing of event or circumstance
leads to inital good or bad vibe
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Processing style and emotions
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emotions lead to different reasoning
eg/ anger leads people to be close minded and rely on old stereotypes whereas sadness leads people to analyze details of situation
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Regulators
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nonverbal expressions that coordinate conversation
eg/ looking and pointing at someone we want to talk to
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Secondary appraisal
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Later appraisal
why we feel the way we do and how we want to respond
lead to specific emotions towards situations (fear, anger, pride)
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Self-adaptors
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gestures used to adapt to environment
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Universality of facial expressions
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7 basic facial expressions are recognized universally
-fear
-anger
-sadness
-disgust
-contempt
-happiness
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Define emotions
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brief, specific, socially oriented states that are felt specifically toward an event or person
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PSYC 2606: Social Self