I Acid Base Balance A pH levels 1 greater H acidic 2 lower H alkaline 3 all functional proteins influenced by H a almost all reactions are influenced by pH of their environment 4 H ions are by product of metabolism lactate a Ketone bodies from ketosis lack of CHO releases H ions into blood B pH balance in Body Fluids 1 Arterial blood 7 4 7 45 alkalosis 2 Venous interstitial 7 35 7 35 acidosis 3 4 pH decreases as H increases 5 Lower pH more CO2 more acidic Intracellular 7 0 6 7 Strong acid dissociate completely which releases all of its H into the water a Ex HCl 8 Weak Acid only dissociates partly H not those bound to anions a Weak acids are efficient at preventing change in pH because acidity is reflected by FREE b 9 Strong base dissociates easily and accepts H hydroxides 10 Weak base bicarbonate ammonia C H Regulation 1 Chemical Buffers 1st Line Defense system of one or more compounds that acts to resist changes in pH when strong acid or base is added a Fraction of second b Compounds bind to H when pH drops release H when pH rises c Shift in H concen in one fluid department is compensated by shift in another compartment d Can only tie up acids or bases temporarily e 3 Buffer Systems 1 Bicarbonate only important buffer in extracellular fluid a HCl strong acid b H2CO3 carbonic acid weak acid c NaOH sodium hydroxide strong base d NaHCO3 sodium bicarbonate weak base e HCl s Interaction w Bicarbonate i ii iii Carbonic acid weak acid doesn t dissociate completely HCl strong acid does Bicarbonate weak base ties up H from HCl a pH is only slightly lowered strong base is added NaOH causes carbonic acid to dissociate more making H tie up with OH released by strong base a pH is slightly elevated 2 Phosphate effective buffer in URINE intracellular fluid a H2PO4 weak acid b HPO42 weak base c Phosphate concentrations are low in blood d e Titratable acid the process by which the kidney eliminates H w urinary buffers The monobasic phosphate ion buffer is filtered f g As pH deceases in tubular lumen the monobasic phosphate ion becomes a more effective buffer and is converted to titratable acid 3 Protein Hemoglobin a all buffering power of all bodily fluids are in cells b This reflects buffering capabilities of intracellular proteins c COOH strong acid releases H when pH rises to counteract it d Amino group NH2 binds with H to become NH3 This removes H to prevent solution from becoming too acidic i e Amphoteric molecules on pH of environment f Hemoglobin is after releasing O2 single protein that can act as acid or base depending i H dissociates from carbonic acid but H rapidly binds to Hb changes are minimal a This is rapid binding b c of Hb s charge due to release of O2 4 2 Brain Stem Respiratory Centers a 1 3 minutes more slowly than chemical b 2X the buffer of all chemical buffer s combined c As CO2 is EXPELLED Carbonic acid is formed and dissociated in H d Hypercapnia increase respiratory rate 1 Chemoreceptors increase plasma H to counteract alkalosis e Respiratory Compensation 1 Compensate for metabolic acid base imbalances 2 Metabolic acidosis 3 Metabolic alkalosis 4 CO2 H2O H2CO3 H HCO 3 increased respirator rate and depth decreased respiratory rate and depth drop in cerebral spinal fluid activates medulla chemoreceptors which 5 3 Renal Mechanisms Kidneys a Hours to a day b ONLY THE KIDNEYS can rid the body of metabolic acids NOT CHEMICAL BUFFERS c Only kidneys can regulate blood levels of alkaline substances and renew chemical buffers that are used up 4 H proportional to CO2 in ECF 5 CO2 inversely proportional to blood pH a HCO3 is lost when CO2 leaves lungs b H retained as HCO3 is secreted increasing H shifts equation to right c Na reabsorbed from filtrate to maintain balance d Need to replenish HCO3 to counteract H retention 6 a Carbonic acid production in tubule lumen and CO2 diffusion b Bicarb production in cel c Na and Bicarb reabsorb in ECF with no net acid secretion decreases luminal pH D Acid Base Disorders 1 Summary a 2 E Acid base imbalances 1 2 II Male Reproductive System A Anatomy 1 Primary Sex Organs a Testes produce gametes secrete hormones 2 Roles of Testes a Exocrine Function sperm production of mature sperm spermatogenesis 1 Takes place in seminiferious tubules 2 Produces sperm gametes a Begins at about 14 years old and makes about 4 million sperm everyday b Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis c d e f i ii iii iv v vi 3 Phases of Spermatogensis a Proliferative phase 3 types spermatogonia Type A dark Ad dense chromatin Type A pale Ap chromatin less dense Type B Ad gives rise to Ap and generates more Ad for future sperm generations Ap gives rise to Type B b Meiotic Phase i ii iii Type B divide by mitosis to primary spermatocytes Replicated chromosomes then seek out partner After meiosis 1 each daughter cell will have 2 copies and number of chromosomes is cut in half 46 23 iv v Meiosis 2 further division keeps number of chromosomes the same c Spermiogenic Phase i Differentiation of a spermatid into a sperm through 4 steps a Golgi phase tail filament appears b Cap phase head cap appears from acrosomal granule c Acrosome phase nucleus and head cap elongate acrosomal granule differentiates to form acrosome d Maturation Phase cell completes differentiation to become a mature sperm 4 Involves seminiferous epithelium and sertoli cells a Cycle of seminiferous epithelium i ii iii iv v vi vii 1st cycle Type A to Type B spermatogonia 16 days 2nd cycle primary spermatocytes form 16 days 3rd cycle spermatids of first cycle appear 16 days 4th cycle spermiogenesis completed spermiation begins Spermatogonia initiate a new cycle every 16 days with a total of 4 cycles 64 days One sperm are released into lumen another 10 days is required for movement to epididymis 64 10 74 days Sperm are stored in epididymus b Endocrine Function hormones 1 Production of androgens steroidogenesis 2 Involves interstitial compartment and leydig cells 3 Accessory Sex Organs a Seminal Plasma and Semen 1 Seminal plasma secretions from sex accessory glands 2 Semen combination of seminal plasma and sperm b Epididymus 1 Sperm migration through epididymis takes 10 16 days added to 74 days needed for spermatogenesis 90 days for sperm to appear in ejaculate 2 Sperm are stored in cauda epididymis and vas deferens NOT IN SEMINAL VESICLES 3 Maturational changes sperm acquire capacity for motility in epididymis 4 Elimination of aged sperm by phagocytosis c Ductus Deferens d Ejaculatory Duct e Urethra f Seminal Vesicles 1
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