A PII Objectives Exam 4 Power Point 1 Acid Base Balance Objective 1 Explain the effects of H concentration on pH levels in the body pH is the measure of acidity in a solution relative concentration of H in body fluids o Greater H Acidic Lower H Alkaline All functional proteins are influenced by H So almost all reactions are influenced by pH of their fluid H are by products of metabolism Lactate Also ketone bodies from ketosis due to a lack of CHO environment Interstitial fluid blood releases H ions into the blood Objective 2 Explain how the 3 major buffering systems work as well as the subsystems of the protein buffering system 1 Chemical Buffers 1st line of defense acid or base is added o Definition A system of one or more compounds that acts to resist changes in pH when a strong o These act within a fraction of a second in an attempt to resist changes in pH Muscle Carnosine Compounds bind to H when pH drops and release H when pH rises A shift in H concentration in one fluid compartment is compensated by a shift in another compartment if 2 or more compounds o There are 3 Chemical Buffer Systems Bicarbonate Buffer System H2CO3 and NaHCO3 H2CO3 Carbonic Acid Weak Acid NaHCO3 Sodium Bicarbonate Weak Base HCL Strong Acid NaOH Sodium Hydroxide Strong Base The Only important buffer in extracellular fluid ECF Phosphate Buffer System H2PO4 weak acid and HPO4 2 weak base Phosphate concentrations are low in the blood so this is very effective buffer in urine and intracellular fluid ICF Protein Buffer System Example Hemoglobin of buffering power of all bodily fluids are in the cells and this mostly reflects the buffering capabilities of intracellular proteins Amino Group Carbon Group COOH Organic Acid COOH is a strong acid which releases H when pH rises to counteract it Amino Group NH2 binds w H to become NH3 This removes H to prevent the solution from becoming too acidic Amphoteric Molecules A single protein which can act as an acid or base depending on the pH of its environment Hemoglobin is charged after releasing O2 H dissociates from Carbonic Acid but H rapidly binds to Hb so pH changes are minimal o Note this rapid binding is because of Hb s charge due to the release of O2 NOTE Chemical buffers can only tie up acids or bases temporarily only kidneys can remove excess from the body 2 Brain Stem Respiratory Centers Act within 1 3 minutes to counteract acidosis or alkalosis Respiratory Buffer 2X s the buffering power of all of the chemical buffers combined As CO2 expelled from lungs Carbonic acid is formed and dissociated in H Hypercapnia drop in cerebrospinal fluid activates medulla chemoreceptors which increase Respiratory rate Chemoreceptors will also increase plasma H to counteract alkalosis Acidosis increase in respiratory rate and depth Alkalosis decrease in respiratory rate and depth Respiratory Compensations Compensate for metabolic acid base imbalances CO2 H2O H2CO3 H HCO 3 3 Renal Mechanisms Kidneys Require hours or even a day or more to act on changes in blood pH Only the kidneys can rid the body of metabolic acids not chemical buffers i e nitrogen and regulate blood levels of alkaline substances and renew chemical buffers that are used up H is proportional to CO2 in ECF and CO2 is inversely proportional to blood pH HCO3 is lost when CO2 leaves lungs H is retained as HCO3 is secreted which increases H shifting equation to the right Na is reabsorbed from filtrate to maintain balance Need to replenish HCO3 to counteract H retention Objective 3 Explain how the amount of CO2 in the blood affects pH levels Also what is the ventilation response to high and low CO2 levels in the blood As CO2 expelled from lungs Carbonic acid is formed and dissociated in H Hypercapnia drop in cerebrospinal fluid activates medulla chemoreceptors which increase Respiratory rate Chemoreceptors will also increase plasma H to counteract alkalosis CO2 H2O H2CO3 H HCO 3 Objective 4 Explain the ventilation response to pH levels Acidosis increase in respiratory rate and depth Alkalosis decrease in respiratory rate and depth Objective 5 How do acidosis and alkalosis occur Objective 6 Determine the levels of bicarbonate with acidosis and alkalosis Bicarbonate Buffer System H2CO3 and NaHCO3 o H2CO3 Carbonic Acid Weak Acid NaHCO3 Sodium Bicarbonate Weak Base HCL Strong Acid NaOH Sodium Hydroxide Strong Base o The Only important buffer in extracellular fluid ECF Power Point 2 Male Reproductive System Objective 1 Explain the parasympathetic and sympathetic innervations of the male reproductive system and the effects of each Erection with blood o PNS stimulates increase in NO Relaxation and vasodilation of arterioles Erectile bodies fill Ejaculation the propulsion of semen from the male duct system o SNS stimulation of spinal reflex Contraction of ducts and glands Constriction of the bladder Contraction of bulbospongiosus muscles Objective 2 Describe the exocrine and endocrine function of the testes Example Sertoli and Leydig cells The testes serve two distinct physiological roles Exocrine Function Production of mature sperm spermatogenesis Involves the seminiferous epithelium and Sertoli cells Endocrine Function Production of androgens steroidogenesis Involves the interstitial compartment and Leydig cells Objective 3 Explain IN DETAIL the entire process of spermatogenesis as we described in class what happens in each phase and it s time frame through the seminiferous epithelium Takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testes produces sperm gametes or spermatozoa o Begins at about 14 years old and makes about 4 million sperm everyday Spermiogenic Spermiogenic Phase Phase Meiotic Meiotic Phase Phase Proliferative Proliferative Phase Phase Spermatogenesis N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N 2N 2N 2N 2N 4N 4N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N 2N Ap 2N 2N Ad 2N 2N 4N 4N B Sperm Sperm 23 Chromosomes 23 Chromosomes Spermatids Spermatids Spermatids 23 Chromosomes 23 Chromosomes 23 Chromosomes Differentiation Differentiation Differentiation Differentiation 2N 2N 2o Spermatocyte 2o Spermatocyte 2o Spermatocyte 23 Chromosomes 23 Chromosomes 23 Chromosomes 2nd Meiotic 2nd Meiotic 2nd Meiotic 2nd Meiotic Division Division Division Division 1st Meiotic 1st Meiotic 1st Meiotic 1st Meiotic Division Division Division Division 1o Spermatocyte 1o Spermatocyte 1o Spermatocyte 46 Chromosomes 46 Chromosomes 46 Chromosomes Mitosis Mitosis Mitosis Mitosis Differentiation Differentiation Differentiation Differentiation Spermatogonia Spermatogonia
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