Reproduction 1 Most have high reproductive rates a Termites b Flies c Cockroaches 2 Short generation times a Days weeks and months Insects can be symbols of fertility 3 4 Two forms of reproduction a Asexual i Offspring without fertilized eggs ii Without shared gametes iii A female s offspring of unfertilized eggs will be nearly a clone of the female 1 Survival value is high especially if the mother has high survivability iv Produced without shared gametes v Parthenogenesis 1 Development of an embryo without fertilization 2 Haplodiploidy arrhenotoky males a Females have XY chromosomes while males are XO missing one set of chromosomes b Males are formed from an unmated egg c Females come from fertilized eggs d Hymenoptera drones only during mating season 3 Thelytoky males and females a Only females are produced but they are diploid from unfertilized females b Alternation of generations switch to sexual reproduction where males are diploid under crowded conditions aphids i Fusion of nuclei instead of meiosis 1 Successful for over 300 million years in predictable 1 Only half for the genetic variability 2 Genetically similar individuals are susceptible to vi Advantages environments vii Disadvantages b Sexual disaster Involves two gametes bi parental i Separation of gametes ii iii Traits from both parents will be expressed in offspring iv Great deal of diversity 1 Each offspring may or may not have survival value v Advantages 1 Individual receives genetic information from each parent 2 Generates diversity a Essential for survival of the population if the environment is changing or unpredictable 1 Mate location and selection is a complex process a Requires time energy and resources very vi Disadvantages vii Male costly 1 Gametes are sperm 2 Generally smaller and more mobile than female gametes 3 Production of sperm begins in the last larval instar pupal stage or in early adulthood after the final molt 4 Most have a head with nucleus and DNA then flagellum tail to push it along a Termites and others do not have flagellum viii Female 1 Gamete is the ovum 2 Typically an immobile larger gamete 3 Produced in an ovary a Ovarioles ix Mating i Number differs with species ii 2000 in termites and only one is tsetse fly 1 Most effective means of getting gametes together in space and time 2 Direct sperm transfer a Most efficient b With direct placement the sperm travels from male system directly in the female c This reduces environmental influences and competition from other males d Bed bugs use traumatic insemination Just stabs female in the abdomen i ii Sperm goes into circulatory system until it finds ovum e Scale insects i Hemiptera ii iii Have both male and female organs in the Insects live under scales on leaves same body hermaphroditic iv They can fertilize themselves v Named for Aphrodite 3 Mating is sales resistance from the female and salesmanship by the male a Control can be done through chemicals with lock and key idea change the shape then it won t fit 4 Indirect sperm transfer a Some spiders spin a web depositing sperm i The female will accept the package ii Male may help with pedipalp to place it b Silverfish i Spermatophore on ground ii Draws female to it and ties her up until she picks it up and inserts it herself c May be external in aquatics i Males discharge sperm cloud into water after a mating ritual ii Eggs are then fertilized iii Inefficient d Challenge with indirect i Conditions of the environment ii Some sperm bundles could be destroyed by other males 5 Sex determination a Autosomes and sex chromosomes X Y i An autosome is any chromosome other than a sex X or Y b Most insects are the same as humans chromosome i XX is female ii XY is male i XY is female ii XX is male c Lepidoptera butterflies and moths are opposite d Hymenoptera bees i XY is female ii XO is male only one chromosome e Diptera fruit flies i Ration of chromosomes to autosomes determines sex f Mosquitoes and other insects i Temperature dependent sex determination ii If larvae are raised at temperatures around 1 28C for females 2 25C for males 6 Sexual attraction a Sight b Sound c Chemical Communication a Food shelter water favorable environments and others of the same 1 Resources for survival species for reproduction 2 To maintain a population a Reproduction colony maintenance food gathering protection and grooming 3 Protection from predators and parasites often by color a Warning or signaling i Coloring like in wasps b Confusion c Startle response i Color patterns may be eyespots or face patterns i When disturbed new eyespots may pop up with a movement of wings etc d Reinforcement of negative experiences i Mimicry ii How other butterflies look like Monarchs which taste bad 1 Batesian mimicry iii Some flies look like wasps 4 For host food finding and navigation a Trail pheromones i Ants follow the trail to get them to food source one ant has laid the trail when they found the food b Information transfer associated with other behaviors may be sharing food i Type of food etc transfers types of information 5 Methods used a Visual i Color schemes 1 Genetic and species specific 2 Aposematic coloration genetic from natural selection a Avoid picking up things that are brightly colored 3 Camouflage behavioral approach to survival a Also genetic but works through behavior and not just the color of the bug b Assassin bug piles its kills on its back to hide itself 4 Species recognition Insect specific communication a b Can set up traps or decoys using fakes of their species 5 Finding and attracting food and hosts a Grasshoppers are attracted to green grasses along with the up and down striations of the plant b Also the colors of their own species 6 Startle responses 7 UV markers a Moth wings may look like a snake s head a May use a black light to find areas that stand out species specific b Some bugs see different wavelengths of light ii Light 1 Fire flies beetles these 2 Color a Cold lights glow sticks concept came from a Comes from bioluminescence production organs in the abdomen b May be blue yellow or green lights 3 Sequence of flashes a Each species has their own pattern of dashes and dots 4 Height of light above the ground a Fly at different heights b This keeps them from trying to breed with other a May be circular square or rectangular iii Posture usually for mating posture species 5 Time of night 6 Shape of light 1 Receptive 2 Non receptive 3 Aggressive b Sound auditory i How sound is made 1 Species organs or