Review Sheet for Exam 2Schema/Schemes - an organized pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of informa-tion and the relationship among themBasic ideas of Piaget’s theory adaptation throughAssimilation - the process by which people translate incoming information into a form that fits concepts they already understandAccommodation - the process by which people adapt current knowledge structures in re-sponse to new experiencesEquilibration/Disequilibration - the process by which children (or other people)balance assimilation and accommodation to create stable understanding Piaget’s StagesSensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) - Infant knows the world through their senses and through their actions. Infants gain understanding of concepts such as object permanence and be-come capable of deferred imitation. For example, they learned what dogs look like and what petting them feels like.Preoperational Stage (ages 2 to 7 years) - Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. They also begin to be able to see the world fro other people’s perspectives, not just from their own.Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7 to 12 years) - Children become able to think log-ically, not just intuitively. They now can classify objects to coherent categories and understand that events are often influences by multiple factors, not just one.Formal Operational Stage (ages 12 onwards) - Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be well as what is. This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as engage scientific reasoning.Circular Reactions (primary, secondary, and tertiary) in the sensorimotor stage Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months) - This substage involves coordinating sensa-tions and new schemas. For example, a child may suck their thumb by accident and then intention-ally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months) - During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in their mouth.Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months) - Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a caregiver.Centration - the tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event Conservation - the idea that merely changing the appearance of an object does not change their key propertiesHorizontal Decalage - children’s inconsistency in thinking within a developmental stage; explains why, for instance, children do not learn conservation tasks about numbers and volume at the same time Vgotsky’s theoryZone of Proximal Development - children’s potential for intellectual growth rather than their actual level of development; the gap between what children can do on their own and what they can do with the assistance of othersScaffolding - a process in which more competent people provide a temporary framework that supports children’s thinking at a higher level than children could manage on their ownTheory of MindFalse Belief - (problems) tasks that test a child’s understanding that other people will act in accord with their own beliefs even when the child knows that those beliefs are incorrectMental Hardware - allows us to store vital information to memory, then extracts it when needed to utilizes for the task at handMental Software - aids us to accomplish tasks asked of us Structure of MemorySensory Memory - the fleeting retention of sights, sounds, and other sensations that have just been experiencedWorking or Short Term Memory - a kind of workspace in which information from sensory memory and long-term memory is brought together, attended to, and processed Long Term Memory - information attained on an enduring basisWhat changes (according to the Information Processing perspective)Processing speedStrategy/Rule useWorking Memory Capacity (Chunking and Automaticity)Inhibitory ProcessesKnowledge/ExpertiseRovee-Collier’s work on infant memory (important feature of memory) - The experi-menter tied a ribbon around a young infants ankle and attached it to a mobile hanging above the infant’s crib. After naturally kicking their legs, they learned within minutes the relation between leg movement and the enjoyable sight of the jiggling mobile. They then deliberately and often joyfully increase their rateof foot kicking. Steps children traverse in mastering a strategyProduction deficiency - children being able to use strategies they are taught but can’t pro-duce them on their ownMediation deficiency - children not being able to spontaneously use or benefit from strate-gies even if they are taught how to use them can’t grasp the concept Scripts - the typical sequence of actions related to an event and guide future behaviors in similar settingsKnowledge Network - individuals knowledge of a content area to be learned Meta-cognition - knowledge of the human mind and the range of cognitive processes Meta-memory - knowledge of memory and to monitoring and regulating memory processes (one aspect of meta-cognition)Prereading skillsPhonological awareness - In Kindergarden, children are asked to decide whether two sounds rhyme, decide whether they start with the same sound, to identify component sounds within a word, and to indicate what would be left if a given sound were removed from a word to predict the child’s ability to spell and sound out words in the early grades.Word recognition - rapid, effortless identification of a wordPhonological recoding - converting the visual form of a word into a verbal, speechlike form and using the speechlike form to determine the word’s meaningVisually based retrieval - processing a word’s meaning directly from its vis-ual form Accuracy of Children’s Testimony - have high accuracy in telling generally what happened but when asked specific questions will begin to slip and fall prone to being very suggestible, repeated ques-tioning can result in less accurate account unless it is general open ended questioningPsychometrics - the field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological
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