PSYC355 Exam 2 Review Sheeto Perceptual development in infancyo Visual Infants prefer black/white patterns, “normal” over “scrambled” face, have poor contrast sensitivity (differences in light and dark in a pattern)o Auditory Well developed at birth, can do auditory localizationo Taste Discriminate between sweet, bitter, and saltyo Smell Very sensitive to odorso Intermodal perception (combining of info from two or more sensory systems) Link sight/sound, oral/visual, visual/tactile Studies examining intermodal perceptiono Infant motor development: o Reflexes Innate, fixed patterns of action that occur in response to a particular stimulation Sucking, rooting, swallowing, grasping, moro, stepping reflexo Motor milestones Pre-reaching movements, intentional reachingo Locomotion Walking depends on ability to integrate systems: upright posture, leg alternation, weight shifting, sense of balanceo The importance of experience Experience plays a role in intentional efforts and practice to transform reaching into a refined motor skill Experience plays a role in the development of walkingo Action as an organizer of perceptiono Problem solvingo Visual cliff Links between perception, locomotion, cognitive abilities, emotion and social context Visual cliff illustrates the interdependence of different domains of developmento Different types of learningo Habituation Decrease in response to a repeated stimuluso Perceptual learning1PSYC355 Exam 2 Review Sheet Use perceptual abilities to actively search for order and regularity in the world around them (differentiation of extracting elements from the environment that are stable)o Statistical learning Forming associations among stimuli that occur in a statistically predictablepatterno Classical conditioning A form of learning that consists of associating an initially neutral stimulus with a stimulus that always evokes a particular reflexive responseo Instrumental conditioning Learning the relation between one’s own behavior and the consequences that result from it Operant conditioning (reinforcement/punishment)o Observational learning Ability to imitate the behavior of otherso Infants early understanding of objects and physical propertieso Infants understand that an object cannot float in mid air, but only gradually understand under what conditions an object can be supported by another 3 mo. Understand if two objects have contact 5 mo. Understand the type of contact 6.5 mo. Understand the amount of contact 12.5 mo. Understand the shape of the objecto Violation of expectation paradigmo Procedure used to study infant cognition in which infants are shown an event that should evoke a “surprise” or “interest” if it violates something that the infant knows or assumes to be trueo Types of memoryo Childhood and infantile amnesiao Infantile amnesia - (0-2 years)- lack of memories during this timeo Childhood amnesia - (2-6 years)- steep acceleration of the number of memories that can be retrievedo The Fire Alarm Studyo 4.5 year olds recalled event much better than 3.5 year oldso Difference due to improved understanding of the causal and temporal sequence ofevents The quality of the child’s narrative processing immediately after the event is related to their ability to remember it later ono Children's narratives2PSYC355 Exam 2 Review Sheeto Children with mothers that are more elaborative and engage in conversations withchildren about the past provide richer memories than children with less elaborative motherso Hippocampal development & memory (don’t need to know subfields of hippocampus)o Hippocampus is critical and irreplaceable for memoryo Development begins in the prenatal periodo Prenatal or perinatal oxygen/iron deficiency may alter the development of the hippocampus and may put at risk for memory impairmento Implicit vs. explicit memoryo Implicit memory - unconscious; memory without conscious recollection; memory of skills and routine procedures that are performed automaticallyo Explicit memory - conscious memory of facts and experiences o Source (episodic) vs. semantic (fact) memory and their developmento Episodic memory - memory for episodes; specific events/experiences (remembering/recollection)o Semantic memory - memory of facts; storage of knowledge/concepts (knowing/familiarity)o Methods for studying memory and learning in infantso How young children are motivated to participate in their social world?o Do they care about other people’s goals?o They care about other people’s goals by helping them achieve themo What infants understand about goals and intentions?o Goals are a property of agents, are performed deliberately, are specific to individuals, are efficient relative to constraints, are perceptually informed, and are used to predict and analyze behavior. o How this has been studied (specific study examples).o Methods to measure infants social understandingo Visual preferenceo Infant controlled habituationo How helping behavior develops in infancy and what this means about children’s understanding of and caring about other people’s goals.o Understanding goal-directed actions help infants make better sense of social behavioro Helping behavior is evident at 14 months, is seen cross-culturally, is intrinsically motivated, and increasingly sophisticated; caring precedes helpingo Nativists versus constructivists perspectives on conceptual developmento Nativists - innate understanding of concepts plays a central role in development3PSYC355 Exam 2 Review Sheet Core knowledge theoristso Constructivists - concepts arise from basic learning mechanisms Piaget Theorists (physical interactions with objects) Info-processing theorists (basic processing skills) Sociocultural theorists (social interactions guide attention)o Categorical hierarchies o Categories that are related by set-subset relations, such as animal/dog/poodleo Children form these categories to figure out how things in the world are related to one anothero Infant’s and children’s developing understanding of categories (perceptual vs conceptual)o Form categories of objects in the first months of lifeo A key element in infants’ thinking is perceptual-categorization, the grouping together of objects that have similar appearanceso As children move beyond infancy, their ability to categorize expandso Early roots of folk psychologyo Young infants respond
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