Peer RelationshipsPeer Relationships● Peers: people of approximately same age and status● Peer relationships provide a unique context for cognitive, social, and emotional development○ Equality, reciprocity, cooperation, and intimacy that develop can enhance children’s reasoningability and concern for othersFriendships: intimate, reciprocated positive relationships between people● Degree to which the conditions of friendship become evident in peer interactions increases with age during childhood○ 12-18 mo: select and prefer some children over others○ 20 mo: initiate more interactions with some children more than others○ 2 yrs: imitate others’ behavior, cooperative problem solving, role during play○ Pretend play: cooperation substantially from preschool as share play○ 6-8 yrs: friendship is based on actual activities; view friend in terms of rewards and costs○ Early school-adolescence: mutual liking, intimacy, and loyalty● Elementary School Children Strategies (dimension: indicator)○ Validation and caring: feels good about their ideas; is told they are good at things○ Conflict resolution: make up easily when friends fight; talk about getting over being mad○ Conflict & betrayal: argue a lot; don’t listen to what one says○ Help & guidance: help each other with school work; share with each other○ Companionship and recreation: always sit together; do fun things together○ Intimate exchange: always tell each other problems; share secrets● Schoolchildren Strategies○ More likely to:■ Talk to best friend than a classmate■ Hold anger with a best friend than a classmate○ Less likely to: ■ Physically hurt best friend than classmate■ Forget what happened with a best friend than classmate■ Do nothing regarding best friend’s action than a classmate’s● Functions○ Support and validation■ Provide emotional support early on (4-yr old best friends) when lonely, during difficult transitions, as a buffer against unpleasant experiences■ Reciprocated best friendship: friendship where two children view each other as best or close friends○ Social and cognitive skills■ Provide context for developing social skills and knowledge needed to form positive relationships with others○ Gender differences■ Late elementary school: girls feel friendships are more intimate and provide more validation, care, and guidance than boys do■ Boys’ and girls’ friendships are similar in terms of companionship and recreational opportunities● Girls and boys are less likely to differ in terms of amount of conflict/betrayal with best friend● Girls report less difficulty than boys in resolving conflict● Effects○ Benefits■ Reciprocated best friend in preadolescence positive social outcomes in middle childhood, self-perceived competence and adjustment in adulthood1○ Costs■ Aggression/disruptiveness: effect of having aggressive friends depends on a child’s baseline level of aggression■ Alcohol/substance abuse: friends’ use of drugs and alcohol puts adolescent at greater risk● Choice of Friends○ Similarity and proximity■ Preschoolers: proximity is number 1■ Age 7: prefer peers who are similar in cognitive maturity of play and aggression■ 4th – 8th grade: friends more similar in pro-social/antisocial behavior, peer acceptance, and academic motivation■ Adolescent: similar interests, attitudes, and behaviorsPeer Groups and Cliques● Young Children’s Groups○ Preschool: clear dominance hierarchy among peer group members○ Middle childhood: status involves more than dominance; children are concerned about their peer group status● Cliques and Social Networks○ Cliques: friendship groups that children voluntarily form or join themselves■ 3-9 yr olds: cliques of same sex and race■ 11 yrs old: social interactions occur within the clique■ 11-18 yrs old: increase in number of adolescents who have ties to many cliques; increase in stability of clique■ Early/middle adolescence: high value on being in popular group and conforming to group’s norms regarding dress and behavior○ Boys vs. Girls■ Girls are more integrated into cliques■ Boys have greater diversity of friends■ Girls and boys start to associate each other more and dating relationships are more common■ Cliques of friends include both sexes by high school○ Negative influences■ Membership in a clique can lead to negative behaviors: smoking, drinking, truancy, violence, etc.■ Gangs: provide sense of belonging, protection, etc; more likely to engage in illegal behaviors○ Sociometric status: measurement of degree to which children are liked or disliked by their peers as a group■ Affected by: attractiveness, athletic ability, social behavior, personality, cognitions about self & others, and goals when interacting with peers■ Categories● Popular: receive many positive nominations and few negative nominations○ Skilled at initiating interactions and maintaining positive relationships; cooperative, friendly, sociable, and sensitive to others; not prone to intense negative emotions; less aggressive○ High status girls might use relational aggression to hurt others by spreading rumors■ Relational aggression: aggression that involves exclusion from the social group or attempting to do harm to another’s relationship with others (rumors, withholding friendship to inflict harm, and ignoring/excluding peers)1● Rejected: receive many negative nominations and few positive nominations○ Aggressive-rejected: children prone to physical aggression, disruptivebehavior, delinquency, and negative behavior (40-50%); engage in relational aggression○ Withdrawn-rejected: children who are socially withdrawn, wary, and timid; socially excluded rejection ● Neglected: low in social impact (few pos/neg nominations); not liked or disliked; UNNOTICED○ Interact less with peers; receive less support but not anxious about social interactions● Average: average number of both positive and negative nominations● Controversial: many positive and many negative nominations; noticed and areliked by a few and disliked by a few○ Have characteristics of popular and neglected children; some are seenas snobbish or arrogant● Fostering Peer Acceptance○ Social skills training: help programs designed to help rejected children gain per acceptance; help improve a lack of social knowledge, performance problems, and lack of appropriate self-evaluation● Peer Status
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