- How does emotion boost memory?o We store emotional material in episodic memory better than other materialo Norepinephrine (the neurotransmitter essential for the hippocampus) is involvedo The hippocampus plays a major role in encoding new information into memoryo The amygdala is involved in emotiono The activity in the amygdala is thought to influence the hippocampus- Flashbulb memorieso Vivid memories of dramatic eventso We remember where and when they occurred (e.g. remembering when and where you were at the time of JFK’s assassination or 9/11)o They may be influenced by “fight or flight” mechanisms and the aroused state The sympathetic nervous system is activatedo These memories still may not be 100% “accurate”- Real world implications of memory researcho We can create false memories, because the formation of memories is a constructive process We may read about an event and gain a “memory” of it, even though we were not actually there E.g. if someone shows you a photoshopped picture of you standing at the grand canyon you may create a memory of actually visiting the grand canyono Repressed memories We may want to repress some memories through therapy However, bad therapy practices can lead to false repressed memories (e.g. suggesting a person experienced trauma and that they just have repressed the memory)- False memories: fact from fictiono The false memories we have are not intentionally createdo Memories that are retrieved into working memory may be encoded in long-term memory in a changed formo Siblings may incorporate the memory of a sibling telling of an event as if it was their own event/memory- Loftus false memory researcho She asked a sibling to tell their younger brother about the time he was lost in a mallo The younger brother’s brain created a memory of this occurringo Your brain can add details to the memory (e.g. the brother remembered what shirt he was wearing and how he felt)o However, some memories are easier to implant than others Extreme memories are hard to implant: e.g. a memory of you travelling to Mars- Repressed memorieso They are controversial, because it is debated whether repressed memories are truly repressed or whether they are actually false memorieso However, there is some evidence of their existence Williams did research on repressed memories- Sexual abuse patients (129 women) were documented at a hospital and then interviewed 17 years later about their experience- 38% couldn’t remember their treatment at the hospital- 12% couldn’t even remember being sexually abused The theory is that repressed memories may be repressed because of poor retrieval cues With cues, memories may be restored- Eye witness testimonyo Can be incorrecto Eye witness identification has been proven incorrect in some cases through DNA testing or evidence of the true offender being foundo In identification of the suspect, 20% of eye witnesses identified innocent people from mug shots, and 8% from a line up- PTSDo Characterized by unwanted intrusive memories that appear to happen “here and now”- it feels like they are completely re-experiencing the traumatic memoryo Article on PTSD: what maintains intrusive re-experiencing? 3 factors: Memories are formed in a way that they can be triggered more easily- Trauma involveso Strong perceptual priming (many cues- smells, sounds, etc.)o Strong associative learning (you associate the cues strongly withthe memory)o Poor memory elaboration (you are reluctant to think about and process the memory, which allows it to be stored as biological and episodic memory and it “floats around” and connects to many different memories; to treat this therapists encourage patients to think about and process the memory) Interpretation of trauma memories- PTSD sufferers feel like they are going crazy & actually re-experiencing the memory- Because of this they are reluctant to discuss the memory and feel threatened - Motivates dysfunctional control strategies- Rumination & memory suppression: they talk over and over about the memory but not in a way that resolves it- Suppression: they avoid the memory and things that may trigger it- Safety-seeking behaviors- These make the PTSD stronger Cognitive & behavioral response to trauma memories- Treatment of PTSD focuses on “un-learning” cognitive-behavioral responses that reinforce and perpetuate trauma memorieso By teaching patients to relax and take control of their physiological response and talk about the trauma psychologists can break the negative association with the memory and store itproperly- This is the same as phobia-treatment (as PTSD is an anxiety disorder)o The impact of drugs on soldiers & PTSD Ritalin and Adderall are commonly prescribed for active-duty service members (went from 3,000 to 32,000 in 5 years) and could cause an increase in PTSD These drugs cause the release of norepinephrine (similar to adrenaline) in the brain; this and physical arousal facilitates more vivid memories A shocking combat situation elicits a fear response (“fight or flight”) The result is conditioning (neutral stimuli in the environment such as sights, sounds and smells become linked with the trauma), which enhances the vividness of the memory and leads to PTSD- E.g. the smell of burning may be linked with the memory of war in Iraq for soldiers; the stimulus can trigger symptoms of PTSD like a flashback or a startled reaction It may be possible to block norepinephrine with beta blockers to stop fear-conditioning and potentially preventing PTSD Research in a Boston Hospital was conducted on patients who had experienced trauma (injuries, etc.)- One group was given an adrenaline beta blocker and the other was given a placebo- The patients made a video recording of their memory where they talkedabout the sounds, smells, etc.- 8 months later they replayed the video- The people who had received the placebo were more likely to react physiologically to the video and had a higher likelihood of experiencing PTSD symptoms than the people who had been given the beta blocker Some people believe that administering a beta blocker is wrong because our experiences make us who we are However, others believe that it is alright to use beta blockers to prevent emotional pain Video on fear, PTSD and the brain- A smaller hippocampus may lead to less or less vivid memories; however less or less vivid memories may lead to a smaller