- Neurotransmitters: Norepinhephrine (NE)o Increases arousalo Increased levels may lead to maniao Decreased levels may be involved in depression (though it is not the key neurotransmitter in depression)o Tricyclic antidepressant medications inhibit reuptake, thus functioning as NE agonists- Neurotransmitters: Serotonin (5-HT)o Decreased levels may lead to depressiono It is involved in sleep-wakefulness rhythmso Prozac (fluoxetine)is an SSRI and inhibits reuptakeo Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors & SSRI’s both are agonists of serotonin but have different mechanisms of action MAO inhibits the breakdown of serotonin, so more of it is available for release SSRI’ blocks reuptake so it stays in the synapse longer- Dopamine (DA)o Influences motivation, reward, movement, & especially pleasureo Shortage leads to Parkinson’s disease (trouble with motion; tracts of DA neurons degenerate in the basal ganglia leading to low levels of DA) & depressiono Excess leads to schizophreniao Amphetamine, cocaine (causes release), chlorpromazine (antipsychotic: blocks at receptors)- Peptides modulate neurotransmissiono Peptides are a sort of subcategory of neurotransmitterso CCK Pain, learning, memory Can trigger panic attacks/anxiety (but lowering blocking it can help)o Endorphins Natural pain relievers (e.g. muscles not hurting while running/ “runner’s high”) Bind to same sites as heroin & morphineo Substance P Involved in pain perception (communicates pain to the Central Nervous System)- Endorphinso Emotional perception (they act within pain pathways & emotion centers of the brain)o Shortage: chronic pain, difficulty with self-soothingo Similar to the effects of morphine- cause calm & pleasure- Amino acids are general inhibitory & excitatory transmitters in the braino GABA Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid Inhibits sending neuron (relaxes) Drugs that mimic for anxiety, insomnia Alcohol similar impact on GABA receptors; sedatives, benzodiazepines (Valium) mimic effects In the 60s people took Valium “mother’s little helper” to stay calm Shortage: anxiety, epilepsy (neurons aren’t inhibited), Huntington’s disease (lowered impulse control) Excess: unmotivatedo Glutamate Excites Helps learning/memory- increases the speed of synaptic connectionso “Getting buzzed” Serotonin massively depleted by ecstasy (euphoric feeling; tons of serotonin is released) Terminal buttons are often destroyed- Other psychoactive drugso Amphetamines/cocaine Increase norepinephrine & dopamine Block reuptake & increase release Activate sympathetic nervous system (increased heart rate & blood pressure) Excess: psychotic symptomso Nicotine Acts on the same sites as Ach (learning & memory)o Benzodiazepines/valium Increase response to GABA (relaxes)o Opiates (morphine, heroin, codeine) Activate receptors that usually respond to endorphins- Increased dopamine activation in the nucleus accumbens, binding with opiate receptors- Highly addictive due to dual activation of dopamine & opiate receptorso Hallucinogenic drugs LSD, similar structure to serotonin Altering reality, dream-like, intenseo Marijuana Most widely used illegal drug THC produces relaxed mental state, uplifted/contented mood, & perpetual/cognitive distortions Concentration of cannabinoid receptors in the hippocampus (memory impairment) Medicinal properties controversial- How Neurotransmitters communicateo CNS: brain & spinal cordo Peripheral nervous system includes somatic & autonomic (what we focus on)o Endocrine system communicates through hormoneso Actions of the nervous system & the endocrine system are coordinated- The peripheral nervous systemo The somatic nervous system: skeletal muscles (those attached to bone)o The autonomic nervous system: visceral muscles (heart, arteries, gastrointestinal tract) & glands  Sympathetic (“fight or flight”- when stressed/pressure/used to be reaction to threats/predators)- Pupils dilate- Bronchi relaxed- Heart accelerates & strengthens beats- Intestinal activity inhibited- Blood vessels contract Parasympathetic (“rest & digest”- getting the nervous system back to normal)- Pupils contract- Bronchi constrict- Heartbeat slows- Intestinal activity stimulated- Blood vessels dilated- Hypothalamus regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, arousal- Pituitary- releases hormones- Conclusions:o All psychological functions are supported & regulated by complex interactions between the Central & the Peripheral Nervous Systemso Diverse types of Central Nervous System neurotransmitters play a central & critical role in psychological existence and personality/identity and the experience of the worldo Machinery of the mind underlies psychological realitiesBiological Psychology II: Brain Structure & Function- Overview:o Basic structures (*see diagrams)o Functionso How we know what we knowo “Split brain” researcho Brain plasticityo States of the consciousness- Brain structure: 2 halveso “little brain”- the cerebellum: movemento Brain stemo More complex functions are “higher up”o The limbic system aka subcortical structures- primitiveo Cerebral cortex- weird looking because it needs to fit in a small space- it is like a crumpled up sheet of paper- Interrelations/functionso Spinal cord: controls reflexeso Brainstem: functions for survival (heartbeat, consciousness, etc.)o Cerebellum: movement, balance, (learning, empathy)o Subcortical structures (limbic system): drives & emotionso Cerebral cortex: who we are/personality/identity- Structureo Hindbrain: coordinates information coming into & out of the spinal cord, & controls the basic functions of life Medulla, reticular formation, cerebellum, ponso Midbrain: important for orientation & movement Tectum, tegmentumo Forebrain: highest level of brain; critical for complex cognitive, emotional, sensory & motor functions Cerebral cortex, subcortical structures- Brainstemo “Inner core” of the brain; regulates life-support (gagging, breathing, swallowing, etc.)o Rests atop & connects to the spinal cordo Contains: Medulla (vital involuntary functions) Pons (relays information from cerebellum to the rest of the brain, key for communication) Reticular formation (sleep, arousal, attention) Attaches to the cerebellum (balance & movement)- Midbrain: primitive responses to stimuli; attentiono Tectum: orients us towards stimuli & helps us moveo Tegmentum: