Terms/concepts Definitions/examplesMotivation -involves factors that energize, initiate, direct and sustain behavior- it helps maintain homeostasis-E.g. doing poorly at work motivates you to do betterNeeds -States of deficiency (e.g. hunger, loneliness) -needs produce states of arousal which drive behaviorMaslow -influential concept of a “hierarchy of needs” helped shape humanistic psychology- Maslow developed the idea that people need to be self-actualized, and thatthey have the opportunity to “be all they can be” to be happy and have self-peace- E.g. artists need to be able to create art to be fully happy- If basic needs aren’t met (physiological and safety needs, such as the need for food and the need for safety during war), we won’t think about higherstages in the hierarchy- If needs are met, we move up the hierarchy to belonging and love, esteem, and self-actualization (things that are technically luxuries- they are not necessary for survivalEsteem you feel good about yourself and who you areSelf-actualization you are all you can be (e.g. a musician is able to create music), and you have fulfilled all of your needs and drivesDrives Psychological states activated to satisfy needsBulimia nervosa An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purgingAnorexia nervosa An eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of being fat and severe restriction of food intakeMortality-salience hypothesisThe prediction that people who are reminded of their own mortality will work to reinforce their cultural worldviewsHull -proposed that specific aroused drive states an increase in proportion to the amount of deprivationIncentives External motivators, culturally determinedHabit - Behaviors that consistently reduce drives and arousal become “habit”- E.g. we are hungry after we wake up in the morning, so we eat breakfast which becomes a habitYerkes-Dodson Law -Optimal arousal-We want a balanced level of arousal- not too little or too much- in order to be happy and maintain our best performance-E.g. when taking an exam: if you are bored and have low arousal you will perform poorly, and if you are panicking and have high arousal you will alsoperform poorly. Just the right amount of arousal is optimal and will let you meet your optimal performance. We like an optimal level of challenge.-E.g. kids who are extroverted may seek out more arousal (perhaps by breaking into people’s houses for excitement), and kids who are introverted may avoid arousal (by being alone)Extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation-extrinsic involves external motivation while intrinsic involves internal motivation (such as the curiosity, play and exploratory drive we have)- Intrinsic motivation also includes creativity and problem solvingConscious motivation A motivation to take actions that are not themselves rewarding but that lead to rewardUnconscious motivation A motivation of which one is not awareNeed for achievement The motivation to solve worthwhile problemsApproach motivation A motivation to experience positive outcomesAvoidance motivation A motivation not to experience negative outcomesOverjustification effect -extrinsic rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation-E.g. if you give children crayons they will draw with them (intrinsic), but if you give them stickers as a reward each time they draw a picture withcrayons they will stop drawing with crayons just for funControl theory -we like having control of what we are doing- We also like the idea that we are intrinsically motivated even though we may get extrinsic motivation-You become less motivated if people tell you what to do because you don’t have control over your behaviorSelf-perception -our attitudes are formed by watching what we ourselves do- E.g. we may begin to think that we like to hang out with our friends because we observe that we frequently hang out with themNeed to belong - Humans have a fundamental need to belong (even if it is within a small group)- The need to belong is a basic motive that drives behavior and influences cognition and emotion-Not-belonging increases the risk for health problems, including emotional distressSocial exclusion theory -We are uncomfortable when excluded. This discomfort motivates us to try to be included.-Feeling excluded increases the risks for many problems (health problems, psychological problems, risk of suicide, etc.)What do people do when they are anxious?-they seek out others-Misery loves miserable company, not just any company-When we are sad we like to be with others that are sad or are experiencing the same thing for support-E.g. in an experiment participants were either told that they wouldexperience a high electric shock that would hurt a lot or a low shock that would not hurt at all. They were also given the choice to wait with others or to wait alone. More people chose to wait with others that were assigned the high electric shock.Social comparison theory-We like to be better than or equal to others-E.g. we don’t like to hang out with people that are smarter than usEmotions complex reactions that engage our bodies and minds at multiple levelsA psychological model ofemotion-Physical processes, expressive behavior and cognitive appraisal all influence our emotions-Physical processes differ for different emotions (e.g. sweating when nervous)Expressive behavior -What you show-It can be different from what you feel (e.g. you may smile even though you are sad)Cognitive appraisal -what you say to yourself/what you thinkThe facial feedback hypothesis-When you smile you activate muscles linked to happiness, which makes you happier-In an experiment when people were asked to bite on a pen (forming a smile)they were happier, whereas when they held then pen with their lips (formingmore of a frown) they felt more sadBotox and emotion -Botox is an injection that paralyzes your muscles. It can have health benefits for muscle pain and spams, but it can also be used for cosmetic purposes (e.g. having less wrinkles and looking younger)-Botox causes the dampening of emotions because of the decrease in musclemovementTheories of fear -James-Lange theory-Cannon-Bard theory-Schachter-Stinger two-factor theoryJames-Lange theory -When you see a grizzly bear your body has an automatic physiological reaction (your heart pounds, you tremble, you sweat) which produces the reaction of fear-(no thought process occurs)Cannon-Bard theory - When you see a grizzly bear you simultaneously have a