- Four Models of Memoryo Information processing approach  Memory is a process It’s similar to a computer recording memory 3 basic processes- Encoding (like typing into a computer)- Storage (like saving what you typed in the computer)- Retrieval (like retrieving what you typed)o Parallel distributed processing model  Memory is distributed across interconnected neurons in the brain  When activated, the network works simultaneously (in a parallel manner) to process information In patients with Alzheimer’s as more regions of the brain are damaged their memory becomes worse (although they are greatest affected by damage to the hippocampus)o Levels of processing approach  Memory depends on the degree or depth of processing occurring Shallow processing leads to little memory Deeper processing leads to greater memory E.g. when you study and all you do is read your notes, you don’t learn as much as if you quiz yourself as you goo Three stage memory model Sensory information lost: e.g. forgetting the faces of some of the people you walked past on the way to class Short term info lost: e.g. forgetting the name of someone you just met Encoding involves a meaningful representation of the memory Maintenance is when you repeat information out loud or in your head to remember it We haven’t proven that long term memory is ever permanently lost Retrieval : memory is recalled and then re-encoded Short term memory is also known as working memory: it is information that is up and activated (e.g. remembering what you are saying when you are talking tosomeone) We only remember information if we process it/pay attention to it- forgetting information can occur at each step in the process of remembering something- Sensory memoryo Stores a brief copy (for less than 3 seconds) of stimuli that register during sensory processing Iconic memory: a transduced/encoded visual snapshot or “icon” and lasts less than 1 second Echoic memory : memory of sounds; seems to last for several seconds- Short term memory (STM) o Aka working memoryo 3 part working memory: Visuospatial sketchpad (e.g. allows you where to find the psych lecture hall without having to think hard about where it is) Phonological rehearsal loop (repeating something in your head to remember it) Central executive (has to do with attention)o The “working memory of STM” STM requires attention & has limited capacity STM stores about 7 noticed items for up to 30 seconds (unless rehearsed) Chunking : grouping information together to remember more- It facilitates encoding and transfer to LTM (consolidation of info in STM into LTM) It is easiest to remember the first and last items learned (known as primacy & recency effects, respectively)- Long term memory (LTM) o Explicit memory: any memories we can talk about or consciously recall Semantic memory: information and facts Episodic memory: personally experienced events Recall vs. recognition: - Recall is when you can directly remember (or recall) information when asked about it/intentionally bringing explicit information to awareness (e.g. listing the names of the 7 dwarves from “Snow White”)- Recognition is when you realize you know the information when you seeor hear it/encoding an input and matching it to a stored representation (e.g. recognizing the names of the 7 dwarves from a list of names) Encoding of Explicit LTMs- Elaborative rehearsal needed to create meaningful “chunks” and “hierarchies”- Elaborative rehearsal is the act of rehearsing or repeating information so you remember it (like studying for a test)- “Hierarchies” are a method of organizing information (like outline format) You are most likely to remember information by semantic judgment (items that have meaning) than by rhyme or visual judgment (See Craik & Tulving Experiment slide) Organization of Explicit LTM: - Semantic network : the network of info in your brain/the activation of one concept leads to priming of semantically related concepts, making their subsequent retrieval more probable(if you can’t remember something the semantic network can help you recall it by first thinking of related items)o Implicit memory : memory you aren’t consciously aware of Procedural memory : motor and cognitive skills (e.g. walking) Priming : enhanced identification of objects or words- Sleepo Is important for memory consolidationo FMRIs show that during recall for a group that got sleep (as opposed to the sleep deprived group): There was increased hippocampal activity There was a stronger interaction between the hippocampus and the frontal lobe Sleep facilitated the interaction between the hippocampus and the frontal lobe The hippocampus is less centrally involved in recall later on- The Hippocampuso Is critical in LTM storage, and serves as an “index” for LTM storageo E.g. the case of HM who had his hippocampus and temporal lobes removed to prevent seizures HM was incapable of storing/making new memories, but still had his old memorieso Anterograde amnesia : the inability to transfer from ST to LT memory (e.g. a person walks into a room and you don’t realize that they were there 10 minutes ago)o Retrograde amnesia : the inability to retrieve information from before a particular date (e.g. not knowing who or where you are because your previous memories are lost)o Consolidation : the process by which memories become stable in the brain (how memory“gels”)o Reconsolidation : memories can become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, requiring them to become consolidated again (you remember, then the memory “re-gels”)- Biological bases of memoryo Neuronal and synaptic changes “fire together wire together” idea that repeated certain neurons strengthens the synapse by causing dendrites to grow more spines; the ability of a neuron torelease its neurotransmitters can in-/decrease Our brain adapts to how it is used (e.g. taxi drivers have larger dendritic fields reserved for special memory)- Greenougho The experiment in which rats were placed either in an intellectually & physically stimulating environment, a physically stimulating environment, or an intellectually stimulating environmento The rats in physically stimulating environments increased blood supplies & glial cellso The rats in intellectually stimulating