Lab 2 Review Four Functional groups o Hydroxyl OH Found in alcohols and sugars Polar increases solubility of molecules NOT hydroxide ion o Carbonyl C O Found in Carbohydrates Aldehyde terminal at end Ketone internal inside One or the other on every monosaccharide o Carboxyl C O OH connected to C In fatty acids and amino acids Protein Acidic properties COOH or CO2H o Amino H N H In every amino acid Four types of macromolecules Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Energy Support Recognition Proteins Amino Acids Enzymes Structure Recognition Transport Pigments Signals Movement Lipids Fatty acids and glycerol Cell Membrane Structure Energy Storage Signals Cellular Metabolism Nucleic Acids Hereditary and Protein info Energy Signals OH Alcohol Groups Loves water Makes sugars solid and water soluble C O Aldehyde Ketone Joins with OH to form cyclic structure Position of OH determines further bonding CARBOHYDRATES monosaccharides Contain C H O in ratio of 1 2 1 Used as energy source Called saccharides Dehydration synthesis to put together while losing water uses free OH and H to form H2O loses said water molecule in order to bond two molecules together Hydrolysis Breaking of a bond using water Polysaccharides Starch Glycogen Cellulose Long strips of glucose molecules Polymer is any molecule made up of several repeating units Reducing sugars contain free aldehyde or ketone group carbonyl includes all monosaccharides disaccharides where one aldehyde or ketone group is free Testing for saccharides BENEDICTS TEST Tests for the presence absence of reducing sugar Reducing sugar is sugar with free aldehyde or ketone group All monosaccharides are reducing sugars Positive red orange yellow color Testing for saccharides LUGOL S TEST Indicates presence absence of starch Positive black purple color Starch stores glucose molecules for energy Cellulose is a rigid molecule for support LIPIDS fatty acids and glycerol Contain carbon hydrogen and oxygen but ratio of C H is 1 2 much less O May also contain other elements P N S Form essential structures in cells Important energy stores o Nonpolar molecules Composed of long chains of C and H o Lipid molecules include fats oils steroids phospholipids o Monomers or building blocks for triglycerides Glycerol and fatty acids Major functions o Energy storage o Material for membranes Saturated fats o All C C single bonds o Molecules pack together well solid at room temp o Straight chains Unsaturated fats o Few too many C C bonds o Kinked chains o Molecules don t pack together liquid at room temp Triglycerides o Solid lipids that are stored in human tissue or liquid lipids that are stored in plant tissue Store more energy than any other molecule o Formed by attaching 3 fatty acid molecules to a glycerol molecule through condensation reaction Functional group for glycerol hydroxyl group OH Functional group for fatty acid carboxyl group COOH Phospholipids o Make up the cell membrane Polar head hydrophilic Nonpolar tail hydrophobic TESTS for LIPIDS o Sudan IV Nonpolar dye Bonds to other nonpolar molecules Positive test results Cloudy grouping of red droplets PROTEINS amino acids Also known as polypeptides are organic compounds made of AMINO ACIDS Essential parts of organisms Participate in virtually every process w in cells Make up half dry weight of E coli cell Diverse functions due to ability to bind other molecules specifically and tightly FUNCTIONS o Structural Bones skin hooves hair o Enzymatic Digest sugar makes DNA makes fatty acids o Transport Carries O and fats in blood o Contractile Muscles for movement move chromosomes o Hormone Regulate blood sugar o Immunity Antibodies fight foreign substance o Pigment Skin eyes o Recognition On cell surfaces other molecules o Toxins Stops nerve transmission effects mvmt of ions enzymes that destroy red blood cells Amino acids combine to form protein o Order in which AA form is called sequence o Sequence determines structure of protein o Determined by genetic code DNA TESTING o Biuret Test React with peptide bonds Positive is purple o Ninhydrin Single amino acids Reacts with free amino groups Positive Purple straight chain amino acid Yellow ring chain amino acid proline Bio Molecule Role in Cell Carbohydrates Energy Support Monomer Building Blocks Monosaccharide Protein Regulation Support Amino Acid Lipids Energy Support SIgnaling Glycerol and fatty acids Cholesterol Distinguishing Features C O OH group Substitute OH Way they are connected Central C w H NH2 COOH R groups Mostly C H Insoluble in water Lab 3 Background Most enzymes end in ate 4 000 enzymes responsible for some aspect of human metabolism o speed up biochemical reactions by a factor of 10 3 to 10 6 Enzymes increase rates of reactions by lowering the activation energy of the rxn Enzymes reduce the activation energy therefore increasing the rate of rxn Tests Benedicts reducing sugar Lugol s starch Biuret s peptide bonds Ninhydrin single amino acids Sudan IV PROCESS o Substrate and enzyme are available o Substrate binds to enzyme s active site When together is called transition state Transition state boosts the reactivity of the substrate and speeds up the rxn o Substrate is converted to products o Products are released enzyme is unchanged and can start process over FACTOR AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY o Temperature Reaches optimal temperature then rate of rxn drops due to denaturalization o pH pH concentration but if it gets too acidic basic denaturalization o amt Substrate rate of rxn levels out o amt enzyme directly proportional w unlimited substrate o presence of inhibitors activators Denaturalization breakdown in secondary and tertiary structure of an enzyme o when temp is too high or pH too acidic or basic Light o Visible light 400 700 nm o Combo of all visible light white light o Molecules absorb reflect llight What we see is reflected light o Distance from one crest of a wave to the next is a wavelength o Height of a wave is it s amplitude Light intensity is proportional to amplitude o When light is bent or diffracted it separated into different wavelengths in the visible spectrum o Absorbance or a specific wavelength is proportional to Ability of solute materials to absorb the wavelength Concentration of solute molecules Length of the light path from its source through the solution to the photo detector where light energy is measured Spectrophotometer o Tracks progress of rxn by measuring absorbance transmittance of rxn o Higher A absorbance lower T transmittance
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