Lab 2 Review Four Functional groups o Hydroxyl OH Found in alcohols and sugars Polar, increases solubility of molecules NOT hydroxide iono Carbonyl C=O Found in Carbohydrates - Aldehyde – terminal (at end)- Ketone – internal (inside) One or the other on every monosaccharideo Carboxyl C=O + OH connected to C In fatty acids and amino acids (Protein) Acidic properties COOH or CO2Ho Amino H-N-H In every amino acidFour types of macromolecules Carbohydrates - MonosaccharidesEnergy Support Recognition Proteins – Amino AcidsEnzymes Structure Recognition Transport Pigments Signals MovementLipids – Fatty acids and glycerolCell Membrane Structure Energy Storage Signals Cellular MetabolismNucleic Acids Hereditary and Protein info Energy Signals-OH Alcohol Groups Loves waterMakes sugars solid and water soluble C=O Aldehyde/Ketone Joins with –OH to form cyclic structure Position of OH determines further bonding CARBOHYDRATES monosaccharidesContain C,H,O in ratio of 1:2:1 Used as energy source Called saccharides Dehydration synthesis : to put together while losing water”, uses free OH and H to form H2O, loses said water molecule in order to bond two molecules together Hydrolysis : Breaking of a bond using water Polysaccharides - Starch - Glycogen - Cellulose Long strips of glucose molecules Polymer is any molecule made up of several repeating units Reducing sugars : contain free aldehyde or ketone group (carbonyl), includes all monosaccharides, disaccharides where one aldehyde or ketone group is free Testing for saccharides : BENEDICTS TEST Tests for the presence/absence of reducing sugar Reducing sugar is sugar with free aldehyde or ketone group All monosaccharides are reducing sugars Positive = red-orange-yellow color Testing for saccharides = LUGOL’S TEST Indicates presence/absence of starch Positive = black/purple color Starch stores glucose molecules for energy Cellulose is a rigid molecule for support LIPIDS fatty acids and glycerol- Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen but ratio of C:H is 1:2 (much less O) - May also contain other elements (P,N,S) - Form essential structures in cells - Important energy stores o Nonpolar molecules Composed of long chains of C and H o Lipid molecules include fats, oils, steroids, phospholipids o Monomers or “building blocks” (for triglycerides) Glycerol and fatty acids - Major functions o Energy storage o Material for membranes- Saturated fats o All C-C single bonds o Molecules pack together well (solid) at room temp o Straight chains- Unsaturated fats o Few too many C=C bonds o Kinked chainso Molecules don’t pack together (liquid) at room temp - Triglycerides o Solid lipids that are stored in human tissue or liquid lipids that are stored in plant tissue Store more energy than any other molecule o Formed by attaching 3 fatty acid molecules to a glycerol molecule through condensation reaction Functional group for glycerol = hydroxyl group (OH) Functional group for fatty acid = carboxyl group (COOH) - Phospholipids o Make up the cell membrane Polar head (hydrophilic) Nonpolar tail (hydrophobic) - TESTS for LIPIDS o Sudan IV Nonpolar dye Bonds to other nonpolar molecules Positive test results - Cloudy grouping of red droplets PROTEINS amino acids Also known as polypeptides are organic compounds made of AMINO ACIDS Essential parts of organisms Participate in virtually every process w/in cells Make up half dry weight of E coli cell Diverse functions due to ability to bind other molecules specifically and tightly FUNCTIONS o Structural Bones, skin, hooves, hairo Enzymatic Digest sugar, makes DNA, makes fatty acidso Transport Carries O and fats in bloodo Contractile Muscles for movement, move chromosomeso Hormone Regulate blood sugaro Immunity Antibodies fight foreign substanceo Pigment Skin, eyeso Recognition On cell surfaces, other molecules o Toxins Stops nerve transmission, effects mvmt of ions, enzymes that destroy red blood cells Amino acids combine to form protein o Order in which AA form is called sequence o Sequence determines structure of protein o Determined by genetic code (DNA) TESTING o Biuret Test React with peptide bonds Positive is purple o Ninhydrin Single amino acids Reacts with free amino groups Positive - Purple = straight chain amino acid - Yellow = ring chain amino acid (proline) Bio Molecule Role in Cell Monomer/Building BlocksDistinguishing FeaturesTestsCarbohydrates Energy/Support Monosaccharide C=O, OH group Substitute –OH Way they are connectedBenedicts (reducingsugar) Lugol’s (starch)Protein Regulation/Support Amino Acid Central C w/ H -NH2 -COOH R groupsBiuret’s (peptide bonds)Ninhydrin (single amino acids)Lipids Energy/Support/SIgnaling Glycerol and fatty acids CholesterolMostly C-H Insoluble in waterSudan IVLab 3 Background Most enzymes end in –ate 4,000 enzymes responsible for some aspect of human metabolism o speed up biochemical reactions by a factor of 10^3 to 10^6 Enzymes increase rates of reactions by lowering the activation energy of the rxn Enzymes reduce the activation energy therefore increasing the rate of rxn PROCESS o Substrate and enzyme are available o Substrate binds to enzyme’s active site When together is called transition state Transition state boosts the reactivity of the substrate and speeds up the rxno Substrate is converted to products o Products are released, enzyme is unchanged and can start process over FACTOR AFFECTING ENZYME ACTIVITY o Temperature Reaches optimal temperature then rate of rxn drops due to denaturalizationo pH “ “ pH concentration but if it gets too acidic/basic “ “ denaturalizationo amt Substrate rate of rxn levels outo amt enzyme directly proportional w/ unlimited substrateo presence of inhibitors/activators Denaturalization : breakdown in secondary and tertiary structure of an enzyme o when temp is too high or pH too acidic or basic Light o Visible light = ~400-~700 nm o Combo of all visible light = white light o Molecules absorb reflect llight What we see is reflected light o Distance from one crest of a wave to the next is a wavelength o Height of a wave is it’s amplitude Light intensity is proportional to amplitude o When light is bent or diffracted, it separated into different wavelengths in the
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