Lecture 2Outline of Last Lecture I. Early biology research and studies and how it influenced the evolutionary theoryII. Contributions of Lamarck, Malthus, Darwin, Hamilton, Williams and TriversIII. Characteristics of natural selection, sexual selection and differential reproductive successIV. Early and modern understandings of evolution and adaptations V. Reading: Discovery the Life Span pages 24-35Outline of Current Lecture I. The Scientific Method structureII. The Scientific Method key concepts and variablesIII. Quantitative and qualitative approaches to the research methodIV. The connection between theory and researchV. Research biasVI. Scientific Method exampleCurrent LectureI. The Scientific Method structure- The Scientific Method consists of a research question, hypothesis, research method, and the collection and interpretation of data. The research question is the idea that drives the study, a specific question a researcher wants to know. The hypothesis is an idea aimed at explaining the process of event being studied. It has to be a testable idea and based on accurate available information. The research method can be based on correlational or experimental research. Correlational research method examines if there is a relationship between two variables, for example, people tend to cheat on their partner when drinking so a researcher can examine the relationship and effects of alcohol. Experimental research methods examines if there is a casualrelationship and usually uses a control group, for example, researchers could have a control group with people drinking and a group of people not drinking and watch who cheats on their partner. The last part of the Scientific Method is the collection and interpretation of data. The data can be in variable, numerical or visual form that the researcher can make a conclusion about the hypothesis.II. The Scientific Method key concepts PSY 200 1st Edition- Several key concepts consists of certain variables, procedure, population and study. There are independent and dependent variables where independent means that the variable is manipulated and dependent is the outcome that depends on the independent variable. The procedure is an important outline of steps taken throughout the process. The population is the people of interest in a study and is represented as a sample. There are four different types of study: field, lab, case and longitudinal study. Field study is the study of something that naturallyoccurs. Lab study is a study controlled in a lab environment. Case study is in-depth interviews with small samples of people. Longitudinal study is a study that measures change over time. III. Quantitative and qualitative approaches to the research method- Quantitative approaches consists of two variables, the first one being the factors of interest in aresearch study and the second one being observed and measured. Quantitative data is observations in the form of numbers. Methods consist of specific procedures and tools for collecting data which must be observable by others for verification and replication and it must be systemic in order to minimize bias and for the purpose of replication. The main use of quantitative data is statistical analysis. - Qualitative approaches are attempts to capture the complexity of the phenomena of interest and focuses on personal experience, meaning-making, and context and accepts subjectivity. Thedata is in the form of interview transcription, video/audio recordings or field notes. The analysis consists of categorizing observations into themes, also known as coding, or making connections through narrative/textual analysis. - It is important for research to be as reliable and valid as possible. Reliability is the consistency of measurements across different occasions. Validity is the extent to which the method captures and measures the phenomena it intends to capture and measure. IV. The connection between theory and research- Theory is a collection of statements designed to describe and explain previous observations andpredict future observations. A theory is something that explains the world in a provable way. A good theory should include the five aspects of telling a cohesive story, offering simple and understandable explanations, allowing users to predict and/or collect supporting evidence, it can be falsified and may lead to further research. In theory-driven research, theories are used todevelop a research agenda through deriving a research question from existing theory and formulating theoretically based hypothesis and predictions. V. Research bias- Bias is an unknown or unacknowledged systemic error that leads to inaccurate interpretations and findings. There are three different types of research bias. The first one is measurement biaswhich is when a researcher fails to control the effects of data collection/measurement. This biasusually occurs from the misuse of the instrument used, for example, people tend to give sociallydesirable answers to surveys which may not be accurate. The second type is sampling bias which is when a researcher fails to select a sample that represents the population. For example, a sample may only consist of women when men and women are affected by the topic being investigated. The last type is procedural bias which is when a researcher administers theinterview of questionnaire under adverse conditions. For example, students may be given extra credit in class for participating in a study which may lead to inaccurate results. - The goal to an unbiased research project is to select a sample that is representative of the population and allows for generalizability. It must be representative of a sample that is believed to represent an entire population and generalize in which researchers can look at certain issues and generalize these to a larger population. VI. Scientific Method example- In observation-driven research, an observation is informed by theory. In this example, the observation is young women wear more revealing clothes than older women and men. The research question is “why do young women wear more revealing clothes than older women andmen?” The theory that informs this observation is an example of evolutionary psychology theory where women’s physical appearance attracts men by signaling fertility. The first step is tocreate hypothesis. In this example, the hypothesis is that women wear more revealing clothes when they are between the ages of 20-45 because