CH8- MEMORYMemory- learning that has persisted over time, information that has been stored and can be retrieved. - recall- retrieving information that is not currently in your conscious awareness but that was learned at an earlier time. o A fill-in-the-blank question tests your recall- recognition- identifying items previously learned. o A multiple-choice question tests your recognition- relearning- learning something more quickly when you learn it a second or later time. o When you study for a final exam, you will relearn the material more easily than you did initially.Psychologists create Memory Models to help us think about HOW our brain forms and retrieves memories. Information-Processing models are analogies that compare human memory to a computer’s operations. In any event, we must:- get information into our brain: encoding- retain that information: storage- later get the information back out: retrievalTo explain our memory-forming process, Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin proposed the 3-stage model:Sensory memory -> short term -> long term1. senses momentarily register detail: sensory memory2. from there, we process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal.3. Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval*other psychologists updated this model to include impt. newer concepts: workingmemory and automatic processing.WORKING MEMORY- a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial info and a lot of info retrieved from long-term memory*Alan Baddeley (&others) challenged Atkinson & Shiffrin’s view of short-term memory as a small, brief storage space for recent thoughts and experiences. research shows this stage is NOT just a temporary shelf for holding incoming info. It is an active desktop where your brain processes information, making sense of new input and linking it with long-term memories.o Determining the meaning of information based on context and experienceCentral executive: (Baddeley) as you integrate these memory inputs with your existing long-term memory, your attention is focused. Thisfocused processing = central executive. Without focused attention, informationfades.DUAL-TRACK MEMORY: EFFORTFUL VS AUTOMATIC PROCESSINGExplicit memories/declarative memories- (Attkinson & Shiffrin’s model) facts and experiences that we can consciously know and declare-our mind processes explicit memories through conscious effortful processing (requires attention and conscious effort)Automatic processing: OUTSIDE atkinson&shiffrin’s model: unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.-happens without our awareness-produces implicit memories/nondeclarative memories- retention independent of conscious recollection*this two-track memory system reinforces parallel processing- splitting information into different components for separate and simultaneous processingQ: 2 new concepts that UPDATE the classic Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage information processing model?1. We form some memories (implicit) through automatic processing, withoutour awareness. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model focused only on conscious, explicit memories.2. Working memory: emphasizes the active processing that we know takes place in Atkinson-Shiffrin’s short term memory stageQ- 2 basic functions of working memory?Active processing of incoming visual and auditory info & focusing our spotlight of attention.ENCODING & AUTOMATIC PROCESSINGAutomatic processing -> implicit memories *** Automatic skills -> procedural memories ***Implicit memories (formed from automatic processing: without awareness) include procedural memory for automatic skills (ex: how to ride a bike) & classically conditioned associations among stimuli (ex: feeling fear when stepping into the dentist office)WITHOUT conscious effort you also AUTOMATICALLY process information about: Space: while studying you remember the PLACE on a page the information was on, you later visualize where on the page the answer was Time: unintentionally noting the sequence of events in a day. Retracing your steps Frequency: effortlessly keeping track of how many times things happen (ex: this is the third time I’ve run into her today!)Effortful processing begins with SENSORY MEMORY- feeds our active working memory. Records a momentary image of a scene/echo of a sound.Sperling’s experiment: demonstrates iconic memory- fleeting sensory memory momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.->Sperling experimented where people viewed 3 rows of 3 letter s each for only 1/20 second, after the letters disappeared they could recall only ½. Not because they had insufficient time. Sperling demonstrated that people COULD see and recall all the letters, but only momentarily. Rather then asking about the letters immediately, he sounded a high, medium or low tone after flashing the letters. This tone directed participants to report only the letters of the top, middle, or bottom row. The nine letters were available for momentary recalling.Echoic memory- momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; If attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. Echoes tendto linger for 3-4 secondsEx: what did I just say? Oh right..CAPACITY OF SHORT-TERM AND WORKING MEMORYGeorge Miller: short-term mem. Can retain about 7 pieces of information-without active processing that we understand to be a part of the “working memory”,short-term memories have a limited life.Working memory capacity VARIES depending on age and other factors.young adults have more working-memory capability -> greater ability to multi task.-working memory reflects intelligence level, unlike short term memoryEffortful Processing strategies: Chunking- organizing items into familiar manageable units – enables us to recall easier Mnemonics- memory aids, esp those that use vivid imagery and organizational devices-Peg-word system: harnesses our superior-visual imagery skill. Requires you to memorize a jingle, “One is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, ..” without much effort, you will be able to count by peg-words instead of numbers. Hierarchies- organizing knowledge into hierarchies helps retrieve information efficiently. When words are organized into categories, the recall