CH11: MOTIVATION AND WORKMotivations: need or desire that energizes and directs behavior-arise from interplay between nature and nurture4 perspectives for viewing motivated behaviors:1. Instinct theory- (now replaced by evolutionary perspective) focuses on predisposed behaviors2. Drive-reduction theory- focuses on finding right level of stimulation3. Hierarchy of needs- how some of our needs take priority over othersInstinct: complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.Ex: human unlearned fixed patterns: rooting, sucking.Drive reduction theory- idea that physiological/bodily need creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the needEx: eating, drinking-> physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis:Homeostasis- tendency to maintain balanced/constant internal state; regulation of any aspect of the body chemistry like blood glucose around a particular levelEx: temperature-regulation system: If our body temp cools, body vessels constrict to conserve warmth: feel driven to put on more clothes, seek warmer environment, etc.Incentives- positive/negative environmental stimulus that motivates behaviorEx: when there is both need and incentive: food-deprived person smells baking bread feels a strong hunger drive. In the presence of that drive, the baking bread = compelling incentive.Our motives are pushed by our needs and pulled by incentives in the environment.Some motivated behaviors increase arousal. Human motivation aims not to ELIMINATE arousal but to seek OPTIMUM LEVELS of arousal.Ex: people wanting to climb mt. Everest just because, driven by curiosity, well-fed animals leave shelter to explore and gain information, in the absenceof any need-based drive.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow’s pyramid of human needs. Base: physiological/bodily needs that must first be satisfied before high-level safety needs then psychological needs become active(top->bottom of pyramid. Physiological needs is the first basis)6.Self-transcendence needs- need to find meaning and identity beyond self, trans-personal5.Self-actualization needs- need to live up to our fullest and unique potential4.Esteem needs- need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, independence; need for recognition and respect from others3.Belongingness & love needs- need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation2.Safety needs- need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe1.Physiological needs- need to satisfy hunger and thirst*Marlow’s hierarchy is somewhat arbitrary: order of such needs is not universally fixed. (people starved themselves to make a political statement)4 representative motives:physiological level: hunger- Ancel Keys: studied semi-starvation by cutting the food intake of 36 males (all wartime conscientious) in half. Without thinking, men began conserving more energy; appeared apathetic.o Psychological effects- food-obsessed. They daydreamed aboutfood, talked about food, and lost interest in sex and social activities. Preoccupations illustrated the power of activatedmotives to hijack our consciousness. When youre hungry, thirsty, fatigued, sexually aroused, nothing else really seems to matter. - Physiology of Hunger, what triggers it?o A.L. Washburn: intentionally swallowed a balloon. When inflated to fill his stomach, the balloon transmitted his stomach contractions to a recording device. Washburn was having stomach contractions whenever he felt hungry.o What about without stomach pangs? Researchers removed rats’ stomachs and attached their esophagi to their small intestines the rats continued to get hungry and eat. Some hunger persists similarly in humans who ulcerated or cancerous stomachs have been removedBody Chemistry and the BrainPeople and other animals automatically regular their calorie intake to prevent energy deficits and maintain a stable body weight.Glucose- form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. -insulin is secreted by the Pancreas and controls blood glucose.Arcuate nucleus- secretes appetite-stimulating hormones, and another center thatsecretes appetite-suppressing hormones.- When an appetite-enhancing center is stimulated electrically, well-fedanimals begin to eat. If the area is destroyed, even starving animals have no interest in food.- When appetite-suppressing center is stimulated electrically, animals will stop eating. Destroy this area and animals will eat more and moreand become fat.Blood vessels connect the hypothalamus to the rest of the body, so it can respond toour current blood chemistry and other incoming info.-monitor levels of appetite hormones like:ghrelin: hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach.->during bypass surgery for severe obesity: seal off part of the stomach -> new stomach produces much less ghrelin and appetite is lessened.Leptin(secreted by fat cells) & PYY (secreted from the digestive tract): appetite hormones that decrease hungerOrexin- triggers hunger, secreted by the hypothalamus.Set point- point at which a person’s “weight thermostat” is set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.-in humans and rats: heredity influences body type and set pointbasal metabolic rate- body’s resting rate of energy expenditure. Rate of energy expenditure for maintaining basic body functions when the body is at rest. the semi-starved men stabilized at ¾ their normal weight, taking half their previous calories by reducing their energy expenditure through inactivity but also because of a 29% drop in their basal metabolic rate. Researchers abandoned the idea of a biologically fixed set point because given unlimited access to a wide variety of foods, people and other animals tend to overeat and gain weight.o Prefer the term settling point: indicate the level at which a person’s weight settles in response to caloric intake and expenditure Psychology of hunger: part of knowing when to eat is our memory of our last meal.As time passes since we last ate, we anticipate eating again and start feeling hungry-patients with amnesia have no memory of events thus they don’t remember eating and will eat when offered even 20 minutes after eating their lunch.Taste preferences: biology and cultureOur preferences for sweet and salty