****Practice question: Sensory adaptation, habituation, fatigue are the three ways that we’ve talked about that reduce reaction to stimuli- Discrete Trial Procedures: allow the presentation of discrete problems or choices (1 trial only)If an action receives a reward that action is stamped into the mindLaw of effect: actions change depending on their consequences- Free operant procedures: allowing the modeling of a specific forging or “economic” situations and allow measurement of the rate of performance in those situationsSkinner and Behaviorism: everything is behaviorThoughts/cognition is not what causes behavior, environment causes behavior; cognition is also a part of behavior  environment causes behavior and environment causes cognition, but there is no link between behavior and cognitionGoal-directed action can be explained by interval conditioning and continuous reinforcement; everything from social relationships to language is shaped through reinforcementRienforcement: how behavior is strengthened; made commonPositive reinforcement: reward increases performance of an actionAction  pleasant eventAction  removal of unpleasant eventNegative reinforcement: reduces performance of an actionAction unpleasant eventAction omission of pleasant eventReinforcement increases behaviorPositive Punishment:Omission: prevents a pleasurable event from occurringPunishment reduces behaviorBehavioral control: goal directed actions, instrumental conditioning (perform action; lever press)Predictive learning- Instrumental conditioning as a model of goal directed actionfrom human action theorybelief (contingency): action A goal Xdesire (goal): Xyou need to believe that an outcome will occur out of an action and you need to have a desire for the reward (goal)= goal-directed action- Law of effect: in instrumental learning, stimuli and responses get linkedS-R theory believes that we are animals/animals are simply motivated by reflex- this is not true we understand consequences- Variability in behavior; how do we get NEW behaviors?MOTIVATIONProcess or variables that arouse, sustain, and direct behavior towards a specific goal.Process that energize and maintain goal-directed behaviorMotives: The need and desires that the goal-directed behavior attempts to satisfy- Biopsychology of MotivationBiologically oriented motives: sex, food, drink- Instinct theory (ethological theory)Animals/humans have an innate drive to do particular things in certain situations; patterns of behavior are inherited and triggered by specific stimuliSpecies-specific behavior: ie nest building, migratory behaviorFixed action patterns: long reflex chains that occur in the same way each time, are hard wired. Ie facial expressionsUnlearned behaviors: behaviors that just occur, don’t need to be learned; reflexes (take hand off stove)- Evolutionary TheoryMotives are evolved mechanism that have evolved over time because the increase the survival and reproduction of the speciesAffiliation motive: need to seek our and interact with others; essential for survival/protection- Drive-Reduction TheoryOrganism learns to engage in behaviors that have the effect o reducing drivesHomeostasis: a state of equilibrium or stability of an internal state that the body drives to maintainNeed: a physiological deficiency that disrupts some homeostatic condition; creates a condition of disequilibriumHungry=need; eat to reduce drive/need- Incentive Theoryincentives (external object or event) motivate behavior. The Value of the incentive determines the degree of motivationDrive (finish)Executive control over behavior: the development of a learning system able to chose a mal-adaptive behavior- against the instinct to best survive- How do we make sure an animal action stays adaptive“What do I want?” Must depend on“What do I need?”But how do we decide what we needIncentive learning:2 groups of rats= access to female rate (press lever for rat equally)A- Castrated, B-Sham surgeryTest 1: A and B press lever equally A in a position where access to female has no direct result with lever press/femaleTest 2/Test 3: lever press drops; B remains the same throughoutB is given testosterone replacement lever press for female is reestablished- learn that with testosterone there is an incentive= sexAll responses are learned: “water is good” is learned in a state of thirst for which water was received- Optimal Level of Arousal TheoryBehavior is motivated by the need to optimize (not minimize) arousal.Arousal: Level of activation, alertness, and wakefulness.Theory suggests that we constantly strive to maintain an optimal or ideal level of arousal by seeking or avoiding stimulation from our environment (boredom motivates us to seek out activity; anxiety motivates us to reduce the anxious state).Theory supported by sensory deprivation experiments. Internal need for stimulation?- Marlow’s Hierarchy of NeedsDeficiency needs:Motivational forces in humans are distinct from those of other animals.There is a need hierarchy, and deficiency needs must be regularly satisfied before growth needs can be addressedEach person has a goal to become better by moving up the hierarchy and to actualize one’s full potential.PhysiologicalSafetyBelongingness (start getting more “human”)Self Esteem “getting into more human needs”Self actualization needs (cognitive needs/aesthetic needs)04/19/2012****Practice question: Sensory adaptation, habituation, fatigue are the three ways that we’ve talked about that reduce reaction to stimuli - Discrete Trial Procedures: allow the presentation of discrete problems or choices (1 trial only)-If an action receives a reward that action is stamped into the mindoLaw of effect: actions change depending on their consequences- Free operant procedures: allowing the modeling of a specific forging or “economic” situations and allow measurement of the rate of performance in those situationsSkinner and Behaviorism: everything is behavior -Thoughts/cognition is not what causes behavior, environment causes behavior; cognition is also a part of behavior  environmentcauses behavior and environment causes cognition, but there is no link between behavior and cognition -Goal-directed action can be explained by interval conditioning and continuous reinforcement; everything from social relationships to language is shaped through reinforcementoRienforcement: how behavior is strengthened; made