Understanding and enhancing the safety and effi ciency of the human–machine interaction is the central focus of ergonomics , also called human factors , a fi eld that combines engineering and psychology (Proctor & Vu, 2010). Desks, chairs, switches, buttons—all of the objects workers use every day are the product of design decisions aimed at promoting a person’s effi ciency on the job.In a later study, a group of workers was selected to work without an offi cial supervisor, answering only to the researchers themselves. Th ese workers received a variety of special privileges so that the researchers could see whether these changes infl uenced productivity. As it happens, any change at all did aff ect productivity. Th e results of this work led to the coining of the term Hawthorne eff ect , which refers to the tendency of individuals to perform better simply because of being singled out and made to feel important.Th e human relations approach emphasizes the psychological characteristics of workers and managers and stresses the signifi cance of factors such as morale, attitudes, values, and humane treatment of workers (Cameron, 2007; Dalton, Hoyle, & Watts, 2011). Th e human relations view focuses on the workplace as a crucially important social system. Th e emphasis is on positive interpersonal relations among co-workers, teamwork, leadership, job attitudes, and the social skills of managers. Human relations methods stress that fulfi lling work meets other important human needs beyond purely economic considerationsJob analysis is the process of generating a description of what a job involves, includingthe knowledge and skills that are necessary to carry out the job’s functionsThe analysis must follow a systematic procedure that is set up in advance. Second, it must break down the job into small units so that each aspect can be easily understood. Breaking down a job may lead to= the discovery that, for example, a skill that previously was not considered important actually is. For instance, the responsibilities of a managerial position may include informing employees of termination. Social skills thatmight not have seemed important to the day-to-day function of the job may come to thefore in this case. Th ird, the analysis should lead to an employee manual that accuratelycharacterizes the job. A job analysis can focus on the job itself or on the characteristics of the personAs subjective judgments, performance ratings may be prone to biases and errors (Aguinis, 2009; Austin & Crespin, 2006). One error is the halo eff ect , common in performance ratings, that occurs when a rater gives a person the same rating on all of the items being evaluated, even though the individual varies across the dimensions being assessed. In making halo eff ect errors, the rater allows his or her general impression of the person to guide the ratings. So, for example, the supervisor might give someone a 9 on a 1-to- 10 scale for all assessment items, even though the employee’s work quality was a 9 but his effi ciency was more like a 5.A transactional leader is an individual who emphasizes the exchange relationship between the worker and the leader (Bass, 1985), applying the principle “You do a good job and I will reward you.”Like a Th eory X manager, a transactional leader believes that people are motivated by the rewards (or punishment) they receive for their work, and such a leader gives clear and structured directions to followers. Th e transactional leader works within the goalsof the existing organizational system (“that’s how we do it around here”) and may exhibit management by exception—stepping in only when a problem arises.An individual with this leadership style dedicates thought to the meaning of leadership itself and to the impact she might have in improving an organization. Such a transformational leader is concerned not with enforcing the rules but with changing them. Th e transformational leader is a dynamic individual who brings charisma, passion, and, perhaps most importantly, vision to the position (Mumford, Scott, & Hunter,