Chapter 10 NotesDrive Reduction- A drive is an aroused state that occurs because of a physiological need. You can think of a drive as a psychological itch that requires scratching. A need isa deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation. Generally, psychologists think of needs as underlying our drives. You may have a need for water; the drive that accompanies that need is your feeling of being thirsty.Th e goal of drive reduction is homeostasis, the body’s tendency to maintain an equilibrium, or a steady state. Hundreds of biological states in the body must be maintained within a certain range; these include temperature, blood sugar level, potassium and sodium levels, and oxygenation. When you dive into an icy swimming pool, your body uses energy to maintain its normal temperature. When you walk out of an air-conditioned room into the heat of a summer day, your body releases excess heat by sweating. Th ese physiological changes occur automatically to keep your body in an optimal state of functioning.Intrinsic motivation is based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competence, relatedness, and autonomy), as well as curiosity, challenge, and fun. When we are intrinsically motivated, we engage in a behavior because we enjoy it. Extrinsic motivation involves external incentives such as rewards and punishments. When we are extrinsically motivated, we engage in a behavior for some external payoff or to avoid an external punishment.According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, our main needs are satisfy ed in this sequence: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. Maslow gave the most attention to self-actualization: the motivation to develop to one’s full potential.Th e lateral hypothalamus is involved in stimulating eating. When this area iselectrically stimulated in a well-fed animal, the animal begins to eat. If this part of the hypothalamus is destroyed, even a starving animal will show no interest in food. Th e ventromedial hypothalamus is involved in reducing hunger and restricting eating. When this area of an animal’s brain is stimulated, the animal stops eating. When the area is destroyed, the animal eats profusely and quickly becomes obeseLeptin, a protein secreted by fat cells, decreases food intake and increases energy expenditure.Th e sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is involved in the body’s arousal; it is responsible for a rapid reaction to a stressor, sometimes referred to as the “fi ght or fl ight” response. Th e SNS immediately causes an increase in blood pressure, a faster heart rate, more rapid breathing for greater oxygen intake, and more effi cient blood fl ow to the brain and major muscle groups. All of these changes prepare us for action. At the same time, the body stops digesting food, because it is not necessary for immediateaction (which could explain why just before an exam, students usually are not hungry).James-Lange theory , emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli inthe environment: Emotion occurs after physiological reactions. Moreover, each emotion—from anger to rapture—has a distinct set of physiological changes, evident in changes in heart rate, breathing patterns, sweating, and other responses. Essentially, the James-Lange theory proposes that after the initial perception, the experience of the emotion results from the perception of one’s own physiological changes. You see the bullscratching its hoof on the ground, and you begin to run away. Your aroused body then sends sensory messages to your brain, at which point emotion is perceived. According to this theory, you do not run away because you are afraid; rather, you are afraid because you are running away. In other words, you perceive a stimulus in the environment, your body responds, and you interpret the body’s reaction as emotion.To understand Cannon’s view, imagine the bull and the picnic once again. Seeing the bull scratching its hoof causes the thalamus of your brain to do two things simultaneously: First, it stimulates your autonomic nervous system to produce the physiological changes involved in emotion (increased heart rate, rapid breathing); second, it sends messages to your cerebral cortex, where the experience of emotion is perceived. Philip Bard (1934) supported this analysis, and so the theory became known as the Cannon-Bard theory —the proposition that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously.In the two-factor theory of emotion developed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962), emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitivelabeling ( Figure 10.7 ). Schachter and Singer argued that we look to the external world for an explanation of why we are aroused. We interpret external cues and label the emotion. For example, if you feel good after someone has made a pleasant comment to you, you might label the emotion “happy.” If you feel bad after you have done something wrong, you may label the feeling “guilty.” To test their theory of emotion, Schachter and Singer (1962) injected volunteer participants with epinephrine, a drug that produces high arousal. After participants received the drug, they observed someone else behave in either a euphoric way (shooting papers at a wastebasket) or anangry way (stomping out of the room). As predicted, the euphoric and angry behavior infl uenced the participants’ cognitive interpretation of their own arousal. When they were with a happy person, they rated themselves as happy; when they were with an angry person, they said they were angry. Th is eff ect occurred, however, only when the participants were not told about the true eff ects of the injection. When they were told that the drug would increase their heart rate and make them jittery, they said the reason for their own arousal was the drug, not the other person’s behavior.In a typical research study, participants, when shown photographs like those in Figure 10.9 , are usually able to identify six emotions: happiness, anger, sadness, surprise, disgust, and fear.According to the facial feedback hypothesis, facial expressions can infl uence emotions as well as refl ect them (Davis, Senghas, & Ochsner, 2009). In this view, facial muscles send signals to the brain that help us to recognize the emotion we are experiencing (Keillor & others, 2002). For example, we feel happier when we smile and sadder when we frown.