Psych 1101 Chapter 15 (continue)Biopsychosocial Approach-the medical model assumes that psychological disorders are mental illnesses that need to be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms-the biopsychosocial approach assumes that disorders are influenced by genetic predispositions, physiological states, inner psychological dynamics, and social and cultural circumstances-not all disorders are culture-bound. depression and schizophrenia occur worldwideDiagnosis/DSM-DSM-V is a current authoritative scheme for classifying psychological disorders -DSM diagnoses were developed in coordination with the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10)-most health insurance policies in North America require an ICD/DSM diagnosis before they willpay for therapy. The DSM describes various disorders and has high reliability. For example, two clinicians who are working independently and applying the guidelines are likely to reach the same diagnosisDiagnosis-critics point out that labels can create preconceptions that bias our perceptions of people's past and present behavior and unfairly stigmatize these individuals-labels can also serve as self-fulfilling prophecies-however, diagnostic labels help not only to describe a psychological disorder but also to enable mental health professionals to communicate about their cases, to comprehend the underlying causes, and to discern effective treatment programsRates of Psychopathology-estimated 26% of adult americans suffer from a diagnosable mental disorder in a given years (NIMH)-the three most common disorders in the united states are mood disorders, phobias of specific objects or situations, and social phobia-world health organization (WHO) study found that the lowest rate of reported mental disorders was in Shanghai, whereas the highest rate was found in the united states-one predictor of mental disorder is poverty-although the stresses and demoralization of poverty can precipitate disorders, especially depression in women and substance abuse in men, some disorders, such as schizophrenia, can also lead to povertyAnxiety Disorders-anxiety disorders are characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or dysfunctional anxiety-reducing behaviors-generalized anxiety disorder: characterized as being continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal -panic disorder: an anxiety disorder in which the anxiety suddenly escalates at times into a terrifying panic attack, a minutes-long episode of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying heart palpitations, choking, or other frightening sensations-a phobia: is a persistent, irrational fear of a specific object, activity, or situation; phobias can be so severe that they are incapacitating-social phobia, an intense fear of being scrutinized by others, is shyness taken to an extreme. The anxious person may avoid speaking up, eating out, heights, blood, or close spaces-obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): is characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)-post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): characterized by memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, and/or insomnia that last for four weeks or more following a traumatic experience-the learning perspective views anxiety disorders as a product of fear conditioning, stimulus generalization, reinforcement of fearful behaviors, and observational learning of others' fears-the biological perspective helps explain why we learn some fears more readily and why some individuals are more vulnerable. It emphasizes evolutionary, genetic, and neural influences Mood Disorders-mood disorders are psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes-major depressive disorder: at least five signs of depression last two or more weeks and are not caused by drugs or a medical condition. Symptoms may include sadness, lethargy, crying spells, feelings of worthlessness, irritability, sleep/appetite disturbance, loss of interest in family, friends, and activities, suicidal ideation (thoughts)-bipolar disorder: episodes of depression and mania-major depressive disorder is much more common than is bipolar disorder-the biological perspective emphasizes genetic, neural, and biochemical influences-brains of depressed people have been found to be less active in left frontal lobe and adjacent reward center-the hippocampus, a memory-processing center linked to the brain's emotional circuitry, is vulnerable to stress-related damage-finally, certain neurotransmitters, including norepinephrine and serotonin, seem to be scarce during depression-the social-cognitive perspective suggests that self-defeating beliefs, which arise in part from learned helplessness, and a negative explanatory style feed depression-depressed people explain bad events in terms that are global, stable, and internal**Suicide-individuals with alcohol dependence are roughly 100 times more likely to commit suicide-social suggestion may trigger suicide-the elderly sometimes choose death as an alternative to current or future suffering-warning signs include verbal hints, giving possessions away, or withdrawal and preoccupation with death-some people, especially adolescents and young adults, engage in non-suicidal self-injury as a way to as for help or to gain relief from intense negative thoughtsSchizophrenia-schizophrenia is a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions-delusions (false beliefs): often of persecution or grandeur (FBI is out to get me or people are trying to poison me)-hallucinations: sensory experiences without sensory stimulation; usually auditory and often takethe form of voices-researchers have linked certain forms of schizophrenia with brain abnormalities such as increased receptors for the neurotransmitter dopamine-adoption studies confirm the genetic contribution to schizophreniaDissociative Disorders-dissociative disorders: a person appears to experience a sudden loss of memory or change in identity, often in response to an overwhelmingly stressful situation-may have no memory of identity or family, dissociation itself is not uncommon-dissociative identity disorder (DID): a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities, with the original personality typically denying awareness of the other(s)-skeptics question whether DID is a genuine disorder. Some argue that the condition is