Exam 1 Study Guide: Lectures 1-6 PSYC 107Lecture 1 Chapter 2 – Scientific Methods (Lecture notes with PowerPoint) Phenomenon- any observable occurrence Hypothesis- possible explanation for an occurrence, similar to theory, statement or research question Theory- well confirmed explanation of a phenomenon, similar to hypothesis Fact- a theory that everyone agrees is correct, typically includes an explanation, always has a mechanism. Ex.) theory of evolution its mechanism is natural selection Population- usually a large group Sample- has to be random Operational Definition- explicit description of the definition of and way to measure a construct. EX. Anger, nurturing, creativityLecture 2 Measure and describing behavior- statistical description Predicting behavior- associating two variables EX predicting success in college, take the information of former students, such as GPA and SAT scores, and compare to current subjects in a study Finding causes of behavior- experiments Variable- and characteristic of a thing or process that will take on different values1. Range- indicates variability of variable’s values2. Mean- average of variable values3. Standard deviation- (average deviation) average distance of test scores from the mean of test scores Data- collection of measurements, usually numericReview Falsifiability- stated in such clear precise terms that we can see what evidence would count against it Replicable-those that anyone can obtain, at least approximately, by following the same procedures Anecdote- people’s reports of isolated events Random Sample- Placebo- a pill with no known pharmacological effects Case History- a thorough description of the person, including abilities and disabilities, medical condition, life history, unusual disabilities, medical condition, life history, unusual experiences, and whatever else seems relevant Correlational study- a procedure in which investigators measure the correlation between two variables without controlling either of them Correlation Coefficient- mathematical estimate of the relationship between two variables. The coefficient can range from +1 to -1 Independent Variable- the item that an experimenter changes or controls Dependent Variable- the item that an experimenter measures to determine how it was affected. Lecture 3Genes- Segments of the double helix, a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism, Genes are sections along each chromosome that control the chemical relations that direct development. Genes hold information to build and maintain an organism’s cell and pass genetic traits to offspring. EX. Controlling eye color and other physical features, as well as diseases. Sex/X-linked genes- these genes are located on the X chromosome. These genes are more prominent in men than women.Chromosomes- strands of hereditary material. 23 pairs of chromosomes exist in the nucleus. Lecture 4Chapter 5 Developing Fetus – Germinal stage to birth (chart in slides)Piagetian stages of Intellectual Development- 4 stages (Birth to age 12) steps are seen or not see(sign of problems), brain is not completely grown until age 20-Sensory Motor Stage – 0-24 months, the child babbles, urge to communicate and engage, reactto parents Reponses, uses hands/body language. Visual cliff – test for emotional intelligence, baby who just begun to crawl had no fear going over “cliff” but baby who had been crawling for a while had fear. This experiement showed that fear of height is learned.Ainsworth- scientific study of love, Strange Situation- care giver is in room with child then strangers comes in, later care giver leaves, after a while the care giver comes back. Normal reaction is to approach care giver when they returnObject Permanence- the idea that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them, “out of sight, out of existence.” EX. Two equal lines of quarters then one line is spread out, child believes the spread out line has more quarters, concept of conservation – understand that objects conserve such properties as number, length, volume, area, and mass after changes in the shape or arrangement of the objects.-Preoperational Stage - age 2-5, EX. Child sees two sides of same diorama, then asked to tell about other side, child doesn’t understand other’s perceptions, at this stage child cannot mentally figure out and needs to physically figure it out (count with fingers or physically touch things to count them)-Concrete Operational - Ages 6-11, child performs mental operations on concrete objects but still have trouble with abstract or hypothetical ideas. Abstract reasoning is limited.Lecture 5-Classical Conditioning/Pavlovian conditioning– a process by which associations between eventsare learned, process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli - a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response, EX dog associate certain sound with being fed so they would salivate. Unconditioned stimulus – stimulus that automatically or naturally generates a measurable response, EX food given to dog after certain sound occursUnconditioned Response – a response to an unconditioned stimulus EX. Dog salivates to the presentation of foodConditioned stimulus – stimulus that elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus EX. After training, the certain sound is the conditioned stimulusConditioned Response - response to a conditioned stimulus EX. After training, the dog salivates when certain sound occursLecture 6The Law of Effect-Behavior is followed by desirable consequence then behavior is increased-Behavior and consequences – Operant conditioning-Operant Conditioning – an organism is operating on the environment to produce a consequence, learning that a behavior causes a consequence-Skinner – invented the Skinner Box or “Conditioning Chamber” EX. Rat and pidgon in these boxes put through tests Positive consequence/event – not necessarily positive, but behavior is changes.Negative consequence/event – future behavior increasesReviewChapter 5Monozygotic – develop from a single fertilized egg and therefore have identical genes, “identical” twins, some are mirror images, but one twin may have an activated gene while the same gene is suppressed in the other twinDizygotic – develop from two eggs and share only half their genes, like regular siblings, “fraternal” twinsTemperament