Exam 1 Study Guide Lectures 1 6 PSYC 107 Lecture 1 Chapter 2 Scientific Methods Lecture notes with PowerPoint Phenomenon any observable occurrence Hypothesis possible explanation for an occurrence similar to theory statement or research question Theory well confirmed explanation of a phenomenon similar to hypothesis Fact a theory that everyone agrees is correct typically includes an explanation always has a mechanism Ex theory of evolution its mechanism is natural selection Population usually a large group Sample has to be random Operational Definition explicit description of the definition of and way to measure a construct EX Anger nurturing creativity Lecture 2 Measure and describing behavior statistical description Predicting behavior associating two variables EX predicting success in college take the information of former students such as GPA and SAT scores and compare to current subjects in a study Finding causes of behavior experiments Variable and characteristic of a thing or process that will take on different values 1 Range indicates variability of variable s values 2 Mean average of variable values 3 Standard deviation average deviation average distance of test scores from the mean of test scores Data collection of measurements usually numeric Review Falsifiability stated in such clear precise terms that we can see what evidence would count against it Replicable those that anyone can obtain at least approximately by following the same procedures Anecdote people s reports of isolated events Random Sample Placebo a pill with no known pharmacological effects Case History a thorough description of the person including abilities and disabilities medical condition life history unusual disabilities medical condition life history unusual experiences and whatever else seems relevant Correlational study a procedure in which investigators measure the correlation between two variables without controlling either of them Correlation Coefficient mathematical estimate of the relationship between two variables The coefficient can range from 1 to 1 Independent Variable the item that an experimenter changes or controls Dependent Variable the item that an experimenter measures to determine how it was affected Lecture 3 Genes Segments of the double helix a molecular unit of heredity of a living organism Genes are sections along each chromosome that control the chemical relations that direct development Genes hold information to build and maintain an organism s cell and pass genetic traits to offspring EX Controlling eye color and other physical features as well as diseases Sex X linked genes these genes are located on the X chromosome These genes are more prominent in men than women Chromosomes strands of hereditary material 23 pairs of chromosomes exist in the nucleus Lecture 4 Chapter 5 Developing Fetus Germinal stage to birth chart in slides Piagetian stages of Intellectual Development 4 stages Birth to age 12 steps are seen or not see sign of problems brain is not completely grown until age 20 Sensory Motor Stage 0 24 months the child babbles urge to communicate and engage react to parents Reponses uses hands body language Visual cliff test for emotional intelligence baby who just begun to crawl had no fear going over cliff but baby who had been crawling for a while had fear This experiement showed that fear of height is learned Ainsworth scientific study of love Strange Situation care giver is in room with child then strangers comes in later care giver leaves after a while the care giver comes back Normal reaction is to approach care giver when they return Object Permanence the idea that objects continue to exist even when we do not see or hear them out of sight out of existence EX Two equal lines of quarters then one line is spread out child believes the spread out line has more quarters concept of conservation understand that objects conserve such properties as number length volume area and mass after changes in the shape or arrangement of the objects Preoperational Stage age 2 5 EX Child sees two sides of same diorama then asked to tell about other side child doesn t understand other s perceptions at this stage child cannot mentally figure out and needs to physically figure it out count with fingers or physically touch things to count them Concrete Operational Ages 6 11 child performs mental operations on concrete objects but still have trouble with abstract or hypothetical ideas Abstract reasoning is limited Lecture 5 Classical Conditioning Pavlovian conditioning a process by which associations between events are learned process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response EX dog associate certain sound with being fed so they would salivate Unconditioned stimulus stimulus that automatically or naturally generates a measurable response EX food given to dog after certain sound occurs Unconditioned Response a response to an unconditioned stimulus EX Dog salivates to the presentation of food Conditioned stimulus stimulus that elicits the same response as an unconditioned stimulus EX After training the certain sound is the conditioned stimulus Conditioned Response response to a conditioned stimulus EX After training the dog salivates when certain sound occurs Lecture 6 The Law of Effect Behavior is followed by desirable consequence then behavior is increased Behavior and consequences Operant conditioning Operant Conditioning an organism is operating on the environment to produce a consequence learning that a behavior causes a consequence Skinner invented the Skinner Box or Conditioning Chamber EX Rat and pidgon in these boxes put through tests Positive consequence event not necessarily positive but behavior is changes Negative consequence event future behavior increases Review Chapter 5 Monozygotic develop from a single fertilized egg and therefore have identical genes identical twins some are mirror images but one twin may have an activated gene while the same gene is suppressed in the other twin Dizygotic develop from two eggs and share only half their genes like regular siblings fraternal twins Temperament tendency to be active or inactive outgoing or reserved and to respond vigorously or quietly to new stimuli Fetus about eight weeks after conception the brain is mature enough to produce a few movements Fetal alcohol syndrome a condition marked by stunted growth of the head and body