BIOL 320 1st EditionExam 2 Study Guide: Lectures 6-10Lecture 6Rh Factor & Blood Developmental Aspects & the Cardiovascular SystemUnderstand the Rh factor for blood. What's erythroblastosis fetalis? What does blood develop from in early and late fetal development? Understand the heart and its structure/characteristics.Rh Factor- Rh(-)  no antigens are present on the RBC- RH(+)  at least one antigen is present on the RBCErythroblastosis Fetalis (Hemolytic disease of the newborn)- Subfield in psychology devoted to understanding psychological influences on:- Description:o Mother is Rh(-) and baby is Rh(+) first pregnancy will be ok. Second pregnancy with Rh(-) mother and Rh(+) baby is a problem because the mother now is sensitized and agglutination occurs when mother and baby’s blood mix. The babybecomes anemic and hypoxic. In severe cases, brain damage and even death mayresult.- Treatment:o The baby can be treated with pre-birth transfusions and exchange transfusions after birth.o RhoGAM serum containing anti-Rh antibodies (agglutinins) can prevent the Rh(-) mother from becoming sensitized. By agglutinating the Rh factor, it blocks the mother’s immune response and prevents her sensitization.Developmental Aspects:- Early fetal development: blood cells produced in yolk sac, liver, and spleen.- Late fetal development: blood cells produced in “blood islands” (mesenchyme cells, where bone marrow comes from), which occurs in third trimester (around month 7). Fetal blood also has specific kind of hemoglobin (HbF). HbF has a higher affinity for oxygen (consequently CO2 as well). This higher affinity ensures the developing baby will get enough oxygen.Cardiovascular System: Heart (the pump)- Pericardium- Flow of Blood- Valves- Heart SoundsLecture 7Coronary Circulation & Heart A/P & Conduction System of the HeartUnderstand the structures necessary for coronary circulation and its pathway. What are clinical correlations to disruptions of coronary circulation? Know the histological characteristics of cardiac tissue. How does the heart beat and contract? What are the physiological events that occur? Know the parts of the conduction system of the heart. What regulates heart rate? What are the parts of an ECG and what do they mean in respect to heart activity? Know the heart dysfunctions discussed in class.Coronary Circulation- Left coronary artery branches- Right coronary artery branches- Veins that drain the heartClinical Correlations of Coronary Circulation:- Angina pectoris- Myocardial infarction- HeartburnHistology of Heart:- Cardiac muscle cells usually mono- or di-nucleated still striated stretched together with endomysium and joined together by intercalated discs- Desmosomes prevent cell separation (help stick together)- Gap junctions where the ions pass through for electrical current (firing of heart starts from the pacemaker cells)Heart Physiology:- Action Potential of Contractile Cardiac Muscle Cells1. Depolarization is due to sodium ion influx through fast voltage-gated sodium channels. A positive feedback cycle rapidly opens many sodium channels, reversing the membrane potential. Channel inactivation ends this phase.2. Plateau phase is due to calcium ion influx through slow calcium channels. This keeps the cell depolarized because few potassium channels are open.3. Repolarization is due to calcium channels inactivating and potassium channels opening. This allows potassium ion efflux, which brings the membrane potential back to its resting voltage.- Action Potentials of Auto-rhythmic Cells1. Pacemaker potential: this slow depolarization is due to both opening of sodium channels and closing of potassium channels.2. Depolarization: the action potential begins when the pacemaker potential reaches threshold. Depolarization is due to calcium ion influx through calcium channels.3. Repolarization is due to calcium channels inactivating and potassium channels opening. This allows potassium efflux, which brings the membrane potential backto its most negative voltage.o 1% of cardiac muscle cells are auto-rhythmico Slowly allow leakage of potassium efflux during refractoryConduction System of the Heart- SA Node (main pacemaker of the heart):o Stimulates both atria of the hearto Sends signals to the AV Nodeo Rate: 70-75 beats per minute- AV Node:o Delays signal received from the AV Nodeo If there is a problem with the SA Node, AV Node can run heart but very slow (as low as 40 beats per minute)o Delay: 0.1 second- Bundle of His:o Electrical connection from atria (from two nodes) to the ventricles- Bundle Branches:o Purkinje fiberso Fibers to papillary muscles- Order of Contraction:1. Atria2. Papillary muscles to ensure the AV valve stays shut3. VentriclesRegulation of HR:- Sympathetic ANS- Parasympathetic ANS- Bainbridge Reflex- Endocrine RegulationElectrocardiograph (ECG)- Deflection Waves of ECGo P waveo QRS complexo T wave- Abnormal ECG Tracingso Junctional rhythmo Second-degree heart blocko Ventricular fibrillationHeart Dysfunctions:- Arrhythmia- Fibrillation- Ectopic focus- Bradycardia- TachycardiaLecture 8Cardiac Cycle & Cardiac Output & Stroke Volume & Blood VesselsUnderstand the cardiac cycle (integrating the deflection waves on an ECG, cardiac pressure, ventricular volume, and valve activity). Understand cardiac output and how it is altered. What are the three factors that regulate stroke volume? What are the three congenital heart defects discussed in lecture? What are the three layers of the blood vessels? What are different types of blood vessels and their composition? Know differences between arteries, capillaries, veins, etc…Cardiac Cycle:--Cardiac Output:- CO = HR x SV- Ways to Increase CO-Regulation of Stroke Volume:- SV = EDV – ESV- Preload- Contractility- AfterloadCongenital Heart Defects:- Ventricular Septal Defect- Coarctation of the Aorta- Tetralogy of FallotBlood Vessels- Layers (Tunics):o Tunica intimao Tunica mediao Tunica externa- Types:-Lecture 9Blood Vessels & HemodynamicsWhat are the three types of capillaries? What were the three topics addressed in hemodynamics? What are the resistance factors? What are the relationships between blood flow and pressure/resistance (including resistance factors)? Know how blood flow can be regulated. Understand blood pressure and its regulation (short- and long-term). Understand vasomotor center regulation, specifically the baroreceptor reflex.Types of Capillaries:Hemodynamics:- Blood flowo Continuous capillarieso