Chapter 2 Notes PSY 2012 Dr. SpiresResearch Methods- Research either expands knowledge or creates a new body of knowledge.- Non-experimental Methods describe behavior but don’t let us identify the causes or reasons for the behavior.o Useful for: When you can’t manipulate the predictor variable. (gender, age) When you can’t ethically do an experiment because you can’t ethically manipulate the predictor variable. (illness, poverty) When you just want to describe or predict behavior.o Types of non-experimental research methods: Case Study – in-depth exploration of either a single subject or small groupof subjects examined individually- Pros: various data gathering methods, able to explore important variables and their relationships due to time period of study- Cons: lack of control over variables, potential for subjective observer bias, because they focus on small samples they are oftendifficult to generalize Surveys & Questionnaires – method in which a representative group of people is questioned about their behaviors and attitudes- Pros: can obtain information from more people, requires less investment of time and money- Cons: questions can create bias responses, provides only limited insights about factors, people may try to make themselves look better than they are- Steps of the scientific method:1. Conceptualize an issue2. Formulate a hypothesis3. Gather data4. Analyze the data- Hypothesis - tentative, testable supposition about something- Variable - anything capable of changing- Independent Variable - the subject that is manipulatedPage 1 of 4Chapter 2 Notes PSY 2012 Dr. Spires- Dependent Variable - the results of the independent variable- Extraneous Variable - variables that are manipulated but were not intended to be altered- Demand Characteristic - responding in a way that favors the research expectations - Experimental Group - test subjects - Control Group – non-manipulated group in which to compare the experimental group - Experimental Method – subjects are confronted with specific stimuli under precisely controlled conditions that allow their reactions to be reliably measuredo Why do we do experiments? To make causal statements.o Pros: controlled variables; able to draw cause-and-effect conclusionso Cons: laboratory setting may influence subject’s behavior; some psychology questions cannot be experimentally investigated- Interviewso Structured - questions are predetermined along with the order of the questions o Unstructured - questions are not prearranged (experimental bias)- Observational Method – researchers observe their subjects as they go about their usual activitieso Naturalistic Observation - observed behavior in natural environment without thesubject knowing o Scientific observation should: Be objective – “just the facts” Systematically record data to avoid memory bias and errors Use a good fair sample if you are going to generalize the resultso Pros: provides descriptive information of behavioro Cons: subject’s behavior may be altered by the presence of an observer (Observer Effect); Observer Bias (tendency of an observer to read more into the situation than is actually there)- Correlation Method – method that uses statistical techniques to determine the degree of relationship between variablesPage 2 of 4Chapter 2 Notes PSY 2012 Dr. Spireso Correlation - measures the tendency for variables to change at the same timeo The coefficient of correlation falls between +1.00 to -1.00 (negative correlation = reverse). The farther away from zero, the stronger the relationship.o Pros: may be used when other research methods cannot be used; they can tell you if two or more variables are relatedo Cons: cannot imply that there is a direct cause-and-effect relationship- Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient:rs=1−6∑D2n(n2− 1)- Representative Samples – chosen based on the larger population- Random Samples – every member has an equal opportunity of being chosen- Ethical Issues o Ethical standards – researchers follow the standards identified in the APA Ethics Code to protect participantso Institutional Review Board – an IRB reviews the ethics of the projecto Risk/Benefits – investigators may conduct a research project if the benefits are greater than the risko Minimal risk – the harm or discomfort in a project is not greater than what may be experienced in everyday lifeo Confidentiality – keeping all of the test subject’s information anonymous and private- Informed Consent – Before agreeing to participate in research, individuals learn about the nature of the research task, any risks, and the ways in which their rights are protected.o Privacy – research participants decide how their information is communicated tootherso Deception – some projects require participants to be misinformed about the aspects of the researcho Debriefing – after completing the study researchers inform participants about the research, remove any harmful effects of misconception, and explain any deceptiono Use of Animals – researchers must treat animals humanelyPage 3 of 4Chapter 2 Notes PSY 2012 Dr. Spireso Publication Credit – Individuals who have made significant contribution are referred to as authors when findings are communicatedo Plagiarism – researchers use other’s work as their own- Statistics – mathematical methods for describing and analyzing datao Descriptive data – describes and summarizes datao Inferential data – determines whether or not the results of an experiment are significant or could not have occurred by chance- When evaluating research we must ask:o Is it valid?o Was the study ethical?o Was it informative and/or useful?Page 4 of