NHM 101 1nd Edition Study Guide Outline of Last Lecture I. Antioxidant and redox regulation of gene transcription Outline of Current Lecture II. Regulation of Gene TranscriptionA. Definition of regulon III. Alternative Methods of Gene Regulation at the Transcriptional Level (Quorum Sensing and the Two- Component System)IV. Methods of Gene Regulation at the Translational LevelV. Introduction to MutationsCurrent LectureStructure and Characteristics of Lipids, Proteins, and Carbohydrateso Carbohydrates: Monosaccharaides- Simple sugars- Glucoseo 6-sided ring o Energy source for all cellso One of the two sugars in every disaccharideso Milk sweet flavor - Fructoseo Intensely sweet flavoro Occurs naturally in fruit and honeyo 5-sided ring- Galactoseo Does not have a sweet flavor o 6-sided ringo Position of the hydroxyl group differs from glucose  Disaccharides- Maltose o Glucose+ glucose o Produced whenever starch breaks down - Sucrose o Glucose + fructose o SweetestThese notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.- Lactoseo Glucose + galactoseo Carbohydrate in milk Polysaccharides- Glycogen o Storage form of energy in the bodyo Build of glucose units o Food is not a good source of glycogen - Starcho Storage form of energy in plantso Built of glucose unitso Grains are best source of starch- Fibero Provides structure in stems, trunks, roots, leaves, and skins of plants thus found in all plant foodso Lipids Lipids have carbon, hydrogen and oxygen like carbohydrates  Lipids are characterized by the insolubility to water  Tryglycerides- Contain one glycerol and 3 fatty acids Phospholipids - Phosphate group is water soluble- Lipid component is fat soluble  Sterols- Multiple ring structure- Plant sterolso Similar in structure to cholesterol and can interfere with cholesterol absorption- Roles in the bodyo Used to make active for of vitamin D o Used by the liver to make bileo Used to make sterol hormones, such as sex hormones and adrenal hormoneso Used in structural components of cell membranes o Proteins Proteins are made up of amino acids Amino acids contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen  Amino acids are linked together to form proteins  Linked by peptide bonds Functions of the Macronutrientso Carbohydrates: sweetness; energy;o Lipids: part of every cell membrane; energy; insulation of body temp; protection of vital organso Proteins: structural; enzymes; hormones; regulators of fluid balance; acid-base regulators; transporters; antibodies; energy Digestion process of each macronutriento Carbohydrates- Mouth: salivary enzyme amylase hydrolyzes starch into smaller molecules - Stomach: no new enzymes introduced to break down CHO; salivary amylase diminishes as stomach acid and protein digesting enzymes break it down; fiber may promote satiety- Small intestine: pancreatic amylase continues breaking down polysaccharides; final digestion takes place in outer membranes of intestinal cells; mostly glucose molecules remain- Large intestine: fibers remain and attract water; bacteria in GI tract ferment some fibers and generate water and gas o Lipids- Mouth: some hard fats melt- Stomach: muscles contract to propel contents toward pyloric sphincter; lipid particles broken down by gastric lipase- Small intestine: when fat enters CCK is released which signals the release of bile from the gallbladder; bile acts as an emulsifier so the enzymes can act on the fat; most digestion occurs in SIo Proteins- Mouth: proteins are crushed and moistened- Stomach: partial breakdown of protein through hydrolysis; hydrochloric acid uncoils (denatures) proteins- Small intestine: polypeptides enter the SI; pancreatic and intestinal proteases hydrolyze them into smaller peptide chains and single amino acids; pepdideases on the intestinal wall split most dipeptides and tripepetides into single amino acidsEnzymes and Hormones associated with each macronutrient- Carbohydrates: amylase; maltase= breaks maltose into two glucose molecules; sucrose= breakssucrose into glucose and fructose; lactase= breaks lactose into glucose and galactose; bloodglucose is regulated by insulin and glucagon - Lipids: gastric lipase; CCK; bile; pancreatic lipases and intestinal lipases; VLDL; LDL; HDL- Proteins: insulin and glucagon; Macronutrients and how they affect health- Carbohydrates: sugar intake is excessive in U.S.; sugars displace more nutrient dense foods - Lipids: Cardiovascular disease caused by LDL cholesterol accumulating in arteries; recommendedto lower saturated fat and trans fat by decreasing animal fats; recommended increasing unsaturated fats; may promote cancer growth; reduce red meat- Proteins: protein energy malnutrition causes slowed growth, impaired brain and kidney functions and poor immunity; protein in excess can cause heart disease; high intake of red meat can cause cancer; high protein intake yields increased calcium excretions which causes osteoporosis; may accelerate kidney diseased but does not cause; high protein diets are not good weight management options Recommendations for each macronutrient - Carbohydrates: 45-65%- Lipids:20-35%- Proteins: 10-35%Process of carbohydrate, protein, and fat metabolism in the body. - Carbohydrateglucosepyruvate acetyl CoA TCA cycle  electron transport chain ATP or Water- Lipidsglycerolpyruvateacetyl CoA TCA cycle  electron transport chain ATP or Watero OR- Lipids fatty acidsAcetyl CoA TCA cycleelectron transport chain ATP or water- Proteinsamino acidspyruvateacetyl CoATCA cycleelectron transport chain ATP or watero OR- Proteins amino acids acetyl CoATCA cycle electron transport chain ATP or watero OR- Proteins amino acidsTCA cycleelectron transport chain ATP or water Process that the body takes to provide fuel during fasting. - Short term fasting break down of glycogen- Fasting for 2-5 days break down of lean tissue; amino acids and glycerol converted to pyruvatethen to glucose- Long term fasting  break down of fat for fuel; acetyl CoA build up and converted to ketones Alcohol recommendations and metabolism.- 2 drinks per day for men- One drink per day for women- The liver can only metabolize 1