NHM 101 1nd Edition Study Guide Outline of Last Lecture I Antioxidant and redox regulation of gene transcription Outline of Current Lecture II Regulation of Gene Transcription A Definition of regulon III Alternative Methods of Gene Regulation at the Transcriptional Level Quorum Sensing and the Two Component System IV Methods of Gene Regulation at the Translational Level V Introduction to Mutations Current Lecture Structure and Characteristics of Lipids Proteins and Carbohydrates o Carbohydrates Monosaccharaides Simple sugars Glucose o 6 sided ring o Energy source for all cells o One of the two sugars in every disaccharides o Milk sweet flavor Fructose o Intensely sweet flavor o Occurs naturally in fruit and honey o 5 sided ring Galactose o Does not have a sweet flavor o 6 sided ring o Position of the hydroxyl group differs from glucose Disaccharides Maltose o Glucose glucose o Produced whenever starch breaks down Sucrose o Glucose fructose o Sweetest These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor s lecture GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes not as a substitute o o Lactose o Glucose galactose o Carbohydrate in milk Polysaccharides Glycogen o Storage form of energy in the body o Build of glucose units o Food is not a good source of glycogen Starch o Storage form of energy in plants o Built of glucose units o Grains are best source of starch Fiber o Provides structure in stems trunks roots leaves and skins of plants thus found in all plant foods Lipids Lipids have carbon hydrogen and oxygen like carbohydrates Lipids are characterized by the insolubility to water Tryglycerides Contain one glycerol and 3 fatty acids Phospholipids Phosphate group is water soluble Lipid component is fat soluble Sterols Multiple ring structure Plant sterols o Similar in structure to cholesterol and can interfere with cholesterol absorption Roles in the body o Used to make active for of vitamin D o Used by the liver to make bile o Used to make sterol hormones such as sex hormones and adrenal hormones o Used in structural components of cell membranes Proteins Proteins are made up of amino acids Amino acids contain nitrogen carbon hydrogen and oxygen Amino acids are linked together to form proteins Linked by peptide bonds Functions of the Macronutrients o Carbohydrates sweetness energy o o Lipids part of every cell membrane energy insulation of body temp protection of vital organs Proteins structural enzymes hormones regulators of fluid balance acid base regulators transporters antibodies energy Digestion process of each macronutrient o o o Carbohydrates Mouth salivary enzyme amylase hydrolyzes starch into smaller molecules Stomach no new enzymes introduced to break down CHO salivary amylase diminishes as stomach acid and protein digesting enzymes break it down fiber may promote satiety Small intestine pancreatic amylase continues breaking down polysaccharides final digestion takes place in outer membranes of intestinal cells mostly glucose molecules remain Large intestine fibers remain and attract water bacteria in GI tract ferment some fibers and generate water and gas Lipids Mouth some hard fats melt Stomach muscles contract to propel contents toward pyloric sphincter lipid particles broken down by gastric lipase Small intestine when fat enters CCK is released which signals the release of bile from the gallbladder bile acts as an emulsifier so the enzymes can act on the fat most digestion occurs in SI Proteins Mouth proteins are crushed and moistened Stomach partial breakdown of protein through hydrolysis hydrochloric acid uncoils denatures proteins Small intestine polypeptides enter the SI pancreatic and intestinal proteases hydrolyze them into smaller peptide chains and single amino acids pepdideases on the intestinal wall split most dipeptides and tripepetides into single amino acids Enzymes and Hormones associated with each macronutrient Carbohydrates amylase maltase breaks maltose into two glucose molecules sucrose breaks sucrose into glucose and fructose lactase breaks lactose into glucose and galactose blood glucose is regulated by insulin and glucagon Lipids gastric lipase CCK bile pancreatic lipases and intestinal lipases VLDL LDL HDL Proteins insulin and glucagon Macronutrients and how they affect health Carbohydrates sugar intake is excessive in U S sugars displace more nutrient dense foods Lipids Cardiovascular disease caused by LDL cholesterol accumulating in arteries recommended to lower saturated fat and trans fat by decreasing animal fats recommended increasing unsaturated fats may promote cancer growth reduce red meat Proteins protein energy malnutrition causes slowed growth impaired brain and kidney functions and poor immunity protein in excess can cause heart disease high intake of red meat can cause cancer high protein intake yields increased calcium excretions which causes osteoporosis may accelerate kidney diseased but does not cause high protein diets are not good weight management options Recommendations for each macronutrient Carbohydrates 45 65 Lipids 20 35 Proteins 10 35 Process of carbohydrate protein and fat metabolism in the body Carbohydrate glucose pyruvate acetyl CoA TCA cycle electron transport chain ATP or Water Lipids glycerol pyruvate acetyl CoA TCA cycle electron transport chain ATP or Water o OR Lipids fatty acids Acetyl CoA TCA cycle electron transport chain ATP or water Proteins amino acids pyruvate acetyl CoA TCA cycle electron transport chain ATP or water o OR Proteins amino acids acetyl CoA TCA cycle electron transport chain ATP or water o OR Proteins amino acids TCA cycle electron transport chain ATP or water Process that the body takes to provide fuel during fasting Short term fasting break down of glycogen Fasting for 2 5 days break down of lean tissue amino acids and glycerol converted to pyruvate then to glucose Long term fasting break down of fat for fuel acetyl CoA build up and converted to ketones Alcohol recommendations and metabolism 2 drinks per day for men One drink per day for women The liver can only metabolize 1 drink per hour alcohol will continue to circulate until the liver enzymes Components of energy expenditure and factors that affect it Basal metabolism o Energy burned for life sustaining activities Physical activity Thermic effect of food o Digestion and absorption Factors that affect basal metabolic rate metabolism Age Height Weight Gender Body comp Fever Stress Environmental temperature Fasting