LING 1010: FINAL EXAM
101 Cards in this Set
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Sign language uses what modality?
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visual
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DO HUMANS NEED LANGUAGE?
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YES: LANGUAGE DEPRIVATION IS A SERIOUS MATTER
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Important: MISCONCEPTIONS (WRONG STATEMENTS) ABOUT SIGN LANGUAGE
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-SIGN LANGUAGE IS UNIVERSAL (THERE IS 1 SIGN LANGUAGE IN THE WORLD) (ex. of why it's wrong: ASL, British sign language, French sign language, Spanish sign language, Chinese sign language)
-A SIGN LANGUAGE IS A SIGNED COUNTERPART OF A SPOKEN LANGUAGE (ex: ASL/English)
-THE DEAF PEOPLE AR…
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Important: CORRECT STATEMENTS ABOUT SIGN LANGUAGE
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-EACH DEAF COMMUNITY MAY HAVE ITS OWN SIGN LANGUAGE
-SIGN LANGUAGES ARE INDEPENDENT OF SPOKEN LANGUAGES
-THERE IS A DEAF CULTURE
-SIGN LANGUAGES ARE FULL-FLEDGED GRAMMATICAL SYSTEMS
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Gallaudet University
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"the world leader in liberal education and career development for deaf and hard of hearing students"
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SIGN LANGUAGES ARE GRAMMATICAL SYSTEMS
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-ACQUISITION OF SIGN LANGUAGES BY CHILDREN DISPLAYS THE SAME PROPERTIES AS ACQUISITION OF SPOKEN LANGUAGES (PROVIDED INPUT)
-SIGN LANGUAGES ARE SUBJECT TO THE PRINCIPLES & PARAMETERS OF UG
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EXAMPLES OF GRAMMAR PROPERTIES OF ASL
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-PHONETICS
-MORPHOLOGY
-SYNTAX
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Important: PHONETICS (ASL): "PARAMETERS OF ARTICULATION" (LIKE DISTINCTIVE FEAUTURES)
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-HANDSHAPE (ex: 'miss' (emotion) & 'wrong')
-ORIENTIATION (ex: 'to meet' & 'I-meet-you')
-LOCATION (ex: 'mother' & 'father')
-MOTION (ex: 'tough, hard' & 'physics')
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MORPHOLOGY: MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES (ASL)
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-REDUPLICATION (ex: 'mother' & 'grandmother')
-COMPOUNDING (ex: 'home' + 'work' = 'homework')
-SUFFIXATION (ex: 'learn student' (agent marker))
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SYNTAX: SENTENCE TYPE
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EYEBROWS ~ COMPLEMENTIZER
-DECLARATIVE: EYEBROWS RESTING
-YES/NO-QUESTION: EYEBROWS UP
-WH-QUESTION: EYEBROWS DOWN
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Important: WHAT DO HUMAN BEINGS NEED LANGUAGE FOR?
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FULL COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT & SOCIALIZATION
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SIGN LANGUAGES ARE LIKE ANY OTHER LANGUAGE
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-THEY ARE NATURAL
-THEY ARE ACQUIRED NORMALLY WITH EXPOSURE
-THEY ARE SUBJECT TO THE CRITICAL PERIOD
-DEAF CHILDREN MUST/SHOULD BE EXPOSED TO A SIGN LANGUAGE FROM BIRTH
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LANGUAGE CONTACT
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-SPEAKERS IN CONTACT = GRAMMARS IN CONTACT
-INTERACTIONS AMONG SPEAKERS OF DIFFERENT LANGUAGES
1) CONTACT SCENARIOS: Colonization, Plantation & Slavery, Bi-/Multilingual communities, Globalized Affairs
2) CONTACT OUTCOMES: LANGUAGE CHANGE/DEATH/BIRTH
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CONTACT SITUATIONS: ROLE OF NON-LINGUISTIC FACTORS
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1) DURATION OF CONTACT
2) INTENSITY OF CONTACT
3) LINGUISTIC PRESTIGE: SOCIAL & ECONOMICAL POWER
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CONTACT SITUATIONS: LINGUISTIC PRESTIGE
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-LANGUAGES WITH EQUAL PRESTIGE: BOTH LANGUAGES ARE AN ADSTRATUM LANGUAGE
-LANGUAGES WITH UNEQUAL PRESTIGE: SUPERSTRATUM LANGUAGE & SUBSTRATUM LANGUAGE (ex: British colonization & settlement in America: English is superstratum language, Native American languages were substratum language)
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SUPERSTRATUM
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LANGUAGE USED BY THE DOMINANT GROUP
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SUBSTRATUM
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LANGUAGE USED BY THE OPPRESSED GROUPS
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Important: CONTACT OUTCOMES: LEXICAL BORROWING
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-MOST IMMEDIATE EFFECT
-ADOPTION OF LEXICAL ITEMS FROM ANOTHER LANGUAGE ("LOANWORDS")
BORROWING ~ ADDITION
Examples of elements borrowed in English:
-Food: tequila, burrito
-Animals: chipmunk, opossum
-Cultural items: karaoke, mosque
-Political terms: propaganda, democracy
E…
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CONTACT OUTCOMES: ADSTRATAL LANGUAGES IN EXTENSIVE LONG-TERM CONTACT
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-MOVEMENT TOWARDS MUTUAL INTELLIGIBILITY
-LINGUISTIC ALLIANCE (SPRACHBUND: 'UNION OF LANGUAGES')
Ex: Balkan Sprachbund: Albanian Albanian, Macedonian, Greek, Romanian, Bulgarian, & Serbo-Croatian
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OF THE 1,000 MOST COMMON WORDS OF ENGLISH...
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- 61.7% are of Old English (Germanic) origin
- 38.3% are lexical borrowings: 30.9% French (ex: art, beauty, design, miracle, paradise) & 2.9% Latin (ex: animal, bonus, colloquium, nominate)
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CONTACT OUTCOMES: LANGUAGE SHIFT
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-UNEQUALLY PRESTIGIOUS LANGUAGES IN EXTENSIVE LONG-TERM CONTACT
-MOVEMENT TOWARDS DOMINANT LANGUAGE
Ex: Native American peoples shifted to English
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CONTACT OUTCOMES: LANGUAGE DEATH & ITS CAUSES
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-DISAPPEARANCE OF A LANGUAGE DUE TO THE LACK OF NATIVE SPEAKERS
-CAUSED BY LANGUAGE SHIFT, COERCED ASSIMILATION &/OR GENOCIDE & ETHNOCIDE
Ex:
-Native American languages still spoken today are ~100 (out of thousands originally)
-No Native American languages are spoken natively in Co…
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CONTACT OUTCOMES: LANGUAGE BIRTH
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-CREATION OF A NEW LANGUAGE
-PIDGIN
Ex:
-Hawaii Creole English (Languages of Hawaii:
Hawaiian (<Polynesian<Austronesian) & English)
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Important: PIDGIN
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-CREATED BY SPEAKERS WITHOUT A COMMON LANGUAGE
-CREATED FOR TRADE & DAILY INTERACTIONS
-NO NATIVE SPEAKERS BC CREATED BY ADULTS
-MIXED & SIMPLIFIED LANGUAGE
0NOT A FULL GRAMMAR: NO STABLE VOCABULARY, NO CONSISTENT WORD ORDER, NO EMBEDDED CLAUSES, NO CONSISTENT USE OF WORD FUNCTIONS
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LEXIFIER LANGAUGE
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SOURCE OF MOST LEXICAL ITEMS
Ex:
-Seychelles Creole: French based
-Roper River Creole: English based
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Important: CREOLIZATION IS EVIDENCE FOR...
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THE INNATENESS OF LANGUAGE
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PIDGIN & CREOLE
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PIDGIN: CORRUPTED & INSUFFICIENT INPUT
CREOLE: FULL-FLEDGED LANGUAGE
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CONTACT OUTCOMES
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-AGREED 3RD LANGUAGE
-SPEAKERS OF DIFFERENT LANGUAGES OPT FOR A COMMON FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Ex:
-Latin in the Vatican
-English in business & aviation
-Lingua Geral Paulista (Brazil 16th century)
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Important: HOW MANY LANGUAGES ARE SPOKEN TODAY?
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~ 7,000 LANGUAGES
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LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY & ENDANGERED LANGUAGES
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-THE BIG 9: 40% OF THE WORLD'S POPULATION SPEAKS 1 OF ONLY 9 LANGUAGES WHICH IS ONLY 0.1% OF THE DIVERSITY
-THE BIG 9: MANDARIN, SPANISH, ENGLISH, HINDI-URDU, PORTUGUESE, BENGALI, RUSSIAN, ARABIC, JAPANESE
-NEARLY 10% OF THE WORLD'S LANGUAGES HAVE FEWER THAN 100 SPEAKERS
Ex: Karitian…
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Important: WHAT IS LOST WHEN A LANGUAGE DIES?
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-LOSS TO SCIENCE: KNOWLEDGE & PRODUCTION, LINGUISTIC CLUES TO PRE-HISTORY
-LOSS TO LINGUISTICS: PRINCIPLES & PARAMETERS (LOSS OF EVIDENCE ON LINGUISTIC VARIATION)
-LOSS BEYOND SCIENCE: TRADITIONAL & SPECIALIZED KNOWLEDGE, CULTURAL DIVERSITY (ORAL TRADITIONS) & HUMANISTIC LOSS
-Importan…
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Important: SYNTACTIC UNITS
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CONSTITUENTS
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HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE IS BASED ON...
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INTUITIONS
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Important: A SYNTACTIC THEORY NEEDS:
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-RULES OF STRUCTURE BUILDING
-CLEAR MAPPING BETWEEN STRUCTURE & INTERPRETATION
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CHILDREN ACQUIRING A LANGUAGE HAVE KNOWLEDGE OF...
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HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE
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IS THE HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE THE INPUT?
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NO: THE INPUT IS A SEQUENCE OF WORDS (A SOUND STRING) SO THIS IS EVIDENCE FOR A LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (UG)
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CHILDREN DURING LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DON'T MAKE ERRORS BASED ON...
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LINEAR ORDER
Ex:
-That guy is leading the race.
-Is that guy __ leading the race?
-That guy who is wearing red is leading the race.
-*Is that guy who __ wearing red is leading the race?
-Is that guy who is wearing red __ leading the race?
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Important: SYNTACTIC OPERATIONS CAN ONLY TARGET...
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CONSTITUENTS
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Important: CONSTITUENCY TEST (OPERATIONS)
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1) PRONOMINALIZATION
2) FRONTING
3) WH-QUESTION
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PRONOMINALIZATION
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SUBSTITUTION
Ex: The president announced his plan after the elections. (Substitute (1 at a time) them, then, it, (did) so, he)
-He announced his plan after the elections
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FRONTING
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MOVEMENT
Ex: The president announced his plan after the elections.
-His plan, the president announced (it) after the elections.
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WH-QUESTION
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SUBSTITUTION & MOVEMENT
Ex: The president announced his plan after the elections. (Substitute who, what, when)
-The president announced what after the elections?!
What did the president announce __ after the elections?!
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Important: X'-THEORY
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-A THEORY OF SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE
-RUELS OF STRUCTURE BUILDING (Verbs, Nouns, Adjectives, Prepositions, Adverbs)
-CLEAR MAPPING BETWEEN STRUCTURE & INTERPRETATION (ex: "John saw Mary" ≠ "Mary saw John")
-A UNIVERSAL TEMPLATE
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Important: STRUCTURE & MEANING ARE...
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INDEPENDENT
Ex:
-Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
-*Me bought a dog cute.
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Important: CONSTITUENTS
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HEADS & PHRASES
Ex:
John will give the pie to Mary.
-And Bill will do so too.
-We want John to give the pie to Mary...
-And give the pie to Mary, he will!
John will eat the pie.
-And Bill will do so too.
-We want John to eat the pie...
-And eat the pie, he will!
John will…
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BEING SUBJECT TO SYNTACTIC OPERATIONS MEANS...
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THESE ARE CONSTITUENTS
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Important: 2 UNIVERSAL PROPERTIES OF LANGUAGE ACCOUNTED FOR USING X'-THEORY ARE...
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-BINARY BRANCHING
-ENDOCENTRICITY
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LANGUAGES ARE OPEN TO WHAT TYPE OF VARIATION?
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PARAMETRIC VARIATION:
X > COMPLEMENT IN HEAD-INITIAL LANGUAGES (ex: English)
COMPLEMENT > X IN HEAD-FINAL LANGUAGES (ex: Japanese)
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Important: SPECIFIER
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-REFERENCE
-DEGREE
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TYPES OF PHRASES
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-NOUN PHRASE
-VERB PHRASE
-PREPOSITION PHRASE
-ADVERB PHRASE
-Adjective phrase
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Important: ARGUMENTS
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-ELEMENTS REQUIRED BY A HEAD
-PARTICIPANTS/SUFFERERS OF THE EVENT (AFTER VERB?)
( ) = arguments
Ex:
-John saw (Mary).
-A book about (linguistics).
-I'm afraid (of something). > IMPLICIT ARGUMENT
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Important: ADJUNCTS
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-OPTIONAL ELEMENTS
-MODIFIER OF THE EVENT
( ) = adjuncts
Ex:
-John saw Mary (yesterday).
-a (nice) book about linguistics.
-I'm (completely) afraid.
-John saw you (on Monday).
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ARGUMENTS & ADJUNCTS FORM...
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VERB PHRASES
Ex:
-John saw Mary yesterday.
-And Bill did so too.
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EVERY SENTENCE IS...
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A CONSTITUENT
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Important: CLEAR MAPPING BETWEEN STRUCTURE & INTERPRETATION: EXTERNAL vs. INTERNAL ARGUMENT
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EXTERNAL ARGUMENT → AGENT
INTERNAL ARGUMENT → PATIENT
-REVERSED ROLES (ex: Mary see John)
-WEIRD INTERPRETATION (ex: The book read John)
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Important: THE X'-TEMPLATE PROVIDES THE FOLLOWING INTERPRETIVE INFO:
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-DISTINCTION BETWEEN PARTICIPANTS IF THE EVENT & MODIFIERS OF THE EVENT
-DISTINCTION BETWEEN DIFFERENT PARTICIPANTS' ROLES IN THE EVENT
-SPECIFIER FUCNTIONS
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SPECIFIER FUNCTIONS
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-REFERENCE OF NOUNS
-DEGREE OF ADJECTIVES
-EXTERNAL ARGUMENT OF VERBS
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Important: THERE'S MORE TO A SENTENCE THAN THE DESCRIPTION OF AN EVENT BC...
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A SENTENCE NEEDS A TENSE IN ORDER TO BE ASSIGNED A TRUTH-VALUE
Ex:
-John's seeing the doctor
-John to see the doctor
-John will see the doctor. (future)
-John saw the doctor. (past)
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Important: INFLECTIONAL PHRASE ENCODES...
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TENSE & AGREEMENT
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Important: TYPES OF SENTENCES
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-DECLARATIVES
-QUESTIONS
Ex:
-Will John see the doctor?
-Will the children all see the doctor?
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DECLARATIVES
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AFFIRMATIVES; NEGATIVES
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QUESTIONS
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-YES/NO
-WH-
Ex:
-Will John see the doctor?
-Which one?
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Important: COMPLEMENTIZER PHRASE
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-SENTENCE TYPE
-C CARRIES THE INFO THAT THE SENTENCE IS A YES/NO QUESTION
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COMPLEMENTIZER
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WORDS THAT CAN BE USED TO TURN A CLAUSE INTO THE SUBJECT OR OBJECT OF A SENTENCE
Ex:
-'that'
-'if'
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Important: UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES
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-PHRASES (XPs) MOVE TO A SPECIFIER POSITION
-HEADS (Xs) MOVE TO A HEAD POSITION
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Important: PARAMETRIC VARIATION
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WHAT MOVES WHERE
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3 DOMAINS OF A SENTENCE
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1) EVENT DOMAIN
2) INFLECTIONAL DOMAIN
3) DISCOURSE DOMAIN
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EVENT DOMAIN
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PARTICIPANTS' ROLES
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INLFECTIONAL DOMAIN
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TENSE/AGREEMENT
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DISCOURSE DOMAIN
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SENTENCE TYPE
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X'-THEORY: FUNCTIONAL DOMAINS
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-INFLECTION & COMPLEMENTIZER
-ROOM FOR CROSS-LINGUISTIC VARIATION
-A THEORY OF SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE
-RULES OF STRUCTURE BUILDING
-UNIVERSAL TEMPLATE
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SEMANTICS
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-TRUTH-CONDITIONS
-THE STUDY OF LITERAL MEANING
-INTUITIONS ABOUT LITERAL MEANING
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WHAT IS THE LITERAL MEANING OF A SENTENCE?
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COMPOSITIONAL MEANING (THE MOST BASIC MEANING)
Ex: Obama (person) saw (action) Merkel (person)
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Important: MEANING (INTERPRETATION) IS DERIVED FROM...
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THE PRINCIPLE OF COMPOSITIONALITY (COMPOSITIONAL MEANING)
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Important: THE LITERAL MEANING OF A SENTENCE IS GIVEN BY...
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ITS PARTS & THE WAY THE PARTS ARE ARRANGED
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Important: LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE
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JUDGEMENTS ON STRUCTURE
Ex: "The student will not read the book" in English is like "The student will the book not read" in German
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Important: TO KNOW THE MEANING OF A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE IS TO KNOW...
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-ITS TRUTH-CONDITIONS: A NATIVE SPEAKER KNOWS WHAT THE WORLD SHOULD LOOK LIKE FOR A SENTENCE TO BE TRUE
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Important: DECOMPOSING THE TRUTH
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-EXISTENTIAL
-RELATIONAL
-TEMPORAL (TIME)
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Important: NECESSARY & SUFFICIENT
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NECESSARY = REQUIRED
SUFFICIENT = ENOUGH
Ex:
Mary saw a bird in the garden.
-Existential: someone named Mary-Necessary
-Existential: a bird-Necessary
-Rel: Mary in the garden-Unnecessary
-Rel: a bird in the garden-Necessary
-Temp: event in the past
"You can't make an ome…
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Important: ENTAILMENTS
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-NECESSARY TRUTHS
-A RELATION BETWEEN PROPOSITIONS
-P ENTAILS Q WHEN NO P WITHOUT Q (P CAN'T BE TRUE UNLESS Q IS TRUE)
Ex:
(1) Mary is a sophomore.
(2) Mary is a student.
(1) entails (→) (2)
(2) doens't entail (1)
(1) Jonathan is an animal.
(2) Jonathan is a dog.
(2) → (1)
…
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Important: PROPOSITION
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-THE CLAIM EXPRESSED BY A SENTENCE
-HAS THE POTENTIAL TO BE TRUE OR FALSE/HAVE A TRUTH-VALUE BUT DOESN'T HAVE TO BE EITHER TRUE OR FALSE (such as in a question)
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FOR ENTAILMENT P ENTAILS Q IF...
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P CAN'T BE TRUE UNLESS Q IS TRUE
Ex:
(1) Mary stopped playing the cello.
(2) Mary used to play the cello.
(1) → (2)
(2) doesn't entail (1)
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Important: RELATIONS BETWEEN RPOPOSITIONS
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-MUTUAL ENTAILMENT
-INCOMPATIBILITY
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MUTUAL ENTAILMENT
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-P & Q MUST BE EITHER BOTH TRUE OR BOTH FALSE
-INVOLVES NEARLY PERFECT SYNONYMS
Ex:
(1) Mary has a sister.
(2) Mary has a female sibling.
(1) → (2)
(2) → (1)
sister & female sibling are nearly perfect synonyms
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INCOMPATIBILITY
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-P & Q CAN'T BE BOTH TRUE OR BOTH FALSE
-CONTRADICTIONS
Ex:
(1) George Washington is alive.
(2) George Washington is dead.
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Important: PRAGMATICS
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-IMPLICATURES
-COMMUNICATION CONTEXT
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COMMUNICATION CONTEXT
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SPEAKERS WANT TO TRASMIT INFO & AFFECT THE HEARER
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Important: COMMUNICATION ONLY SUCCEEDS IF...
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THE INTERLOCUTORS ARE COOPERATIVE
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Important: COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE
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-COMMUNICATION ONLY SUCCEEDS IF THE INTERLOCUTORS ARE COOPERATIVE
-THE SPEAKER WANTS TO BE UNDERSTOOD
-THE HEARER WANTS TO UNDERSTAND
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Important: GRICEAN MAXIMS
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-QUALITY
-QUANTITY
-RELATION
-MANNER
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QUALITY
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-TRUTH
-RELIABILITY OF THE INFO
Ex:
A: Where did you find that rock?
B: When Mars exploded last week, some of its pieces fell onto my roof.
Maxim Flouted: not truthful/reliable info
A: Detroit is in Indiana, right?
B: And New York is in Mexico, I suppose.
Maggie Thatcher …
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QUANTITY
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RIGHT AMOUNT OF INFO
Ex:
A: Where do you live?
B: Close to a gas station.
Maxim Flouted: not enough info
A: Where do you live?
B: 870 Plaza de España, Apt. 7, Madrid, Spain.
Maxim Flouted: too much info
A: Did Joe go to Venice?
B: He went to Italy.
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RELATION
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RELEVANCE
Ex:
A: What do you think of Mary's dress?
B: I heard the Dairy Bar is awesome!
Maxim Flouted: avoiding the topic/playing with relevance
A: Do you want to see a movie tonight?
B: I have a midterm tomorrow.
A: I think Mrs. Jenkins is an old windbag, don't you?
B: Lovely we…
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MANNER
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ORGANIZATION & CLARITY
Ex:
A: What happened to my computer?!
B: Something happened to my hand and I don't know how it hit the coffee cup and - because the lid wasn't properly put - it kinda spilled.
Maxim Flouted: strange organization/less clear
Mistakes were made. (unclear)
F…
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RESPECTED MEANS...
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LITERAL
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FLOUTED MEANS...
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NON-LITERAL
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Important: MEANING CAN BE EXPRESSED & OBTAINED EVEN WHEN THE MAXIMS ARE FLOUTED...
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IF YOU ASSUME THE INTERLOCUTORS ARE BEING COOPERATIVE
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Important: (IN MANY CASES) WE CAN ONLY PRODUCE THE EFFECT WE WANT IF WE...
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INTENTIONALLY FLOUT 1 OR MORE MAXIMS (IMPLICATURES)
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Important: IMPLICATURES
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-INVITED CONCLUSIONS
-INFO BEYOND THE SENTENCE
-DEPEND ON THE CONTEXT
Ex:
(You & your interlocutor know that John is an over-sleeper)
"John hasn't arrived at work yet."
Info beyond the sentence: 'John overslept again.'
Example showing Implicatures depend on context:
A: "Moth…
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INTERACTION BETWEEN ENTAILMENT & IMPLICATURE (example)
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"Mary has 4 children."
Entailment: no fewer than 4
Implicature: no more than 4
What is conveyed: exactly 4
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Important: CANCELABILITY TEST for IMPLICATURES
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-NO CONTRADICTION FOR IMPLICATURES
-DOESN'T WORK FOR ENTAILMENT BC THERE'S A CONTRADICTION
(1) Anne is a very bad cook.
(2a) Anne's apple pie is terrible.
(2b) But Anne's apple pie is surprisingly good.
No Contradiction so Implicature
(1) No athlete is from New York.
(2a) No soccer…
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LING 1010: EXAM 1