82 Cards in this Set
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What age does self recognition develop?
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two years; mirror study
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self-concept
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a sense of one's identity and worth
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As we mature we put ____ on our phsyical characteristics and ____ on our psychological states and how others judge us.
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less; more
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self-regulatory research model
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people have a limited amount of energy to devote to self control and that spending it on one task limits the amount that can be spend on another task
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interdependent view of self
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in many Asian and non-Western cultures, a way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people; recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings and actions of others
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independent view of the self
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in Western culture, a way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings and actions of other people
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Who has more relational interdependence meaning that they focus more on a few close relationships?
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women
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Who has more collective interdependence meaning that they focus on their memberships in larger groups?
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men
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introspection
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the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings and motives
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self-awareness theory
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the idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values
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What do we compare our current behavior against?
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our internal standards and values
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reasons-generated attitude change
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attitude change resulting from thinking about the reason for one's attitudes
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When we convince ourselves that inaccurate reasons for attitudes are correct it leads to a ____?
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reasons-generated attitude change
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self-perception theory
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proposed by Bem; when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer there states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs
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when do we infer our inner feelings from our behaviors?
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only when when our feelings are week or unclear
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"Earning by Learning"
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low income children given $2 for every book they read
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Danger of "Earning by Learning"
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children will think they are reading for money not for the joy of it
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overjustification effect
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the tendency of people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons
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overjustification effect rewards
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rewards will only undermine interest if interest was initially high
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performance contingent rewards
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based on how well a task is done and they provide information and positive feedback
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task contingent rewards
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given regardless of how well the task is performed
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two-factor theory of emotion
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physiological arousal followed by finding an explanation or label for arousal
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responses to ___, ___, and ____ are similar
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fear, anger and love
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responses to emotion include
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heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate
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misattribution of arousal or "spillover effect"
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process whereby people make mistaken or wrong inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
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appraisal theories of emotion
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explain that emotions result from people's interpretations and explanations of events, even in the absence of physiological arousal
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mindsets
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how we explain our talents and abilities to ourselves is an important aspect of self-knowledge
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a fixed mindset is
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unchangeable
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a growth mindset is
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malleable, changeable
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social comparison theory
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idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people
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if we want to feel better about ourselves we use which social comparison?
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downward
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if we want to know the top level we use which social comparison?
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upward
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impression management
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the attempt by people to get others to see them as they would like to be seen
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strategies for impression management
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ingratiation and self-handicapping
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ingratiation
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false flattery, "sucking up"
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self-handicapping
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create obstacles or excuses for oneself that will reduce the likelihood they'll succeed
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theory of cognitive dissonance
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thoughts that are in conflict
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three ways to reduce cognitive dissonance
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changing our behavior, justifying our behavior and adding new cognitions that are consistant with the behavior
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self-affirmation
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people will reduce dissonance to their self-concept by focusing their competence on something else unrelatied to the threat
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impact bias
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often overestimate the intensity and duration of the impact of future negative events
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rationalizing behavior
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the need to reduce dissonance and maintaion or self-esteem
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what happens everytime we make a decision?
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dissonance
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how do we reduce in dissonance in decision making?
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we downlplay the negative aspects of the one we choose and downplay the positive aspects of the one we reject
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post-decision dissonance
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dissonance aroused after making a decision
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the permanence of the decision
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the more important the decision, the greater the dissonance
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permanent decision emotion
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people are actually happier with their choice when a decision is more permanent
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lowballing
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a salesperon induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low price, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price
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why does lowballing work?
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somewhat of a commitment exists, anticipation of an exciting event and only slightly higher than the price at another dealership
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decision to behave immorally
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if you cheat you'll soften the morality; if you don't cheat you'll harden it
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justifying your effort
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most people are willing to walk hard to get something they really want
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insufficient justification
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a reason for an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (i.e. in order to receive a reward)
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counter-actual advocacy
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the process by which people are induced to state publicly an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private beliefs or attitudes
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hypocrisy induction
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when you remind them of the inconsistency of counter-actual advocacy
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the power of mild punishment
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induces much dissonance and devalues the forbidden activity; less severe threats cause a greater need to find internal justification thus leading to an attitude change
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self-persuasion
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a long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification
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Ben-Franklin effect
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we will like someone more after doing them a favor
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hating your victim
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we are more likely to derogate people we have harmed if they are innocent victims
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what are the three parts that make up an attitude?
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an affectice component, a cognitive component, a behavioral component
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affective component
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consisting of our emotional reactions toward the attitude object
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cognitive component
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consisting of our thoughts and beliefs about the attitude object
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behavioral component
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consisting of our actions or observable behavior toward the attitude object
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cognitively-based attitude
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an attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object
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affectively-based attitudes
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based on people's feelings and values
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where do affectively based attitudes come from?
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values, sensory reaction, aesthetic reaction, conditioning
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where do affectively based attitudes not come from?
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rational examination of logic
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behaviorally based attitudes
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based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object
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when do we use behaviorally based attitudes?
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only when initial attitude is weak or when there are no other explanations
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explicit attitudes
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we consciously endorse and can easily report; worn on sleeve
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implicit attitudes
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involuntary, uncontrollable and at times unconscious
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why do attitudes change?
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social influence, cognitive dissonance
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persuasive communications
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who says what to whom
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who
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the source of the communication
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what
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the communication itself
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whom
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nature of the audience
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elaboration likelihood model
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specifies when people will be influenced by what the speech says, central, or superficial characteristics, peripherally
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people who base their attitudes on a careful analysis of the arguments will be ___,____ and ___.
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maintained, consistent and more resistant
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fear-arousing communications
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persuasive messages that attempt to change people's attitudes by arousing their fear
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when does fear-arousing communication work?
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moderate amount of fear and a way out
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heuristic-systemic model of persuasion
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explanation of ways in which persuasive communications can cause attitude change
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attitude innoculation
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making people immune to attempts to chagne their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position
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reactance theory
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when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused which they can reduce by performing that very same threatened behavior
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what are the best predictors of deliberate behaviors?
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specific behaviors, subjective norms, ease with which people believe they can perform the behavior
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PSY 274: Exam 3