BIOL 3333: EXAM 1
112 Cards in this Set
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Genes
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DNA regions that encode proteins
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Chromosomes
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Organized structures containing DNA and proteins that package and manage the storage, duplication, expression, and evolution DNA
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Genome
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The DNA within the entire collection of chromosomes in each cell of an organism
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Metabolism
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The chemical and physical reactions that carry out and convert materials into energy
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Proteins
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Large polymers composed of hundreds to thousands of amino acid subunits strung together in long chains
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Convergent Evolution
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Structurally unrelated but functionally analogous organs emerge in different species as a result of natural selection
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Exons
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Protein-encoding region of most genes
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Introns
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DNA that does not code for protein
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Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
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The idea that chromosomes are the carriers of genes
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Mitosis
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Nuclear division followed by cell division that results in two daughter cells containing the same number of chromosomes as the original parent
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Meiosis
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Nuclear division that generates egg or sperm cells containing half the number of chromosomes found in other cells within the same organism
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Fertilization
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The union of haploid gametes to produce diploid zygotes
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Haploid Cell
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Cells that carry only a single set of chromosomes
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Diploid Cells
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Cells that carry two matching sets of chromosomes
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Metaphase
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The point in replication just before the nucleus divides
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Sister Chromatids
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After the chromosomes have duplicated they condense into compact rodlike structures creating two identical halves
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Centromere
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The point where the two sister chromatids attach to each other
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Metacentric Chromosomes
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The centromere is basically in the middle of the sister chromatids
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Acrocentric Chromosomes
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The centroemere is very close to one end of one of the sister chromatids
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Homologous Chromosomes
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Chromosomes that match in size, shape, and banding pattern
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Nonhomologous Chromosomes
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Carry Completely unrelated sets of genetic information
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Autosomes
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Matching pairs of chromosomes in a karyotype
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Chromatin
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Thread like structure that is composed primarily of DNA and protein
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Nucleus
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Manufactures ribosomes, the organelles that function in protein synthesis
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Interphase
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The period between cell divisions
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What are the 3 parts of interphase?
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Gap1, Gap2, Synthesis
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Gap 1
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Birth of a new cell --> onset of chromosome replication: Nothing really happens here
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Synthesis (Interphase)
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Time where cell duplicates its genetic material by synthesizing DNA
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Gap 2
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Time between chromosome duplication and the beginning of mitosis
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Prophase
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Chromosomes condense
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Prometaphase
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Spindle forms
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Kinetochore
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A structure in the centromere region of each chromatid that is specialized for conveyance (chromosomes attach to microtubules using this)
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Mitotic Spindle
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The combination of 3 types of microtubule fibers
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Kinetochore Microtubules
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Microtubules that extend between a centrosome and the kinetochore of a chromatid
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Polar Microtubules
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Microtubules from each centrosome that are are directed toward the middle of the cell
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Astral Microtubules
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Extend from the centrosome toward the cell’s periphery
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Metaphase
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Chromosomes align at the cell's equator
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Anaphase
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Sister chromatids move to opposite spindle poles
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Telophase
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Indentical sets of chromosomes are enclosed in two nuclei
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Cytokinesis
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The cytoplasm divides
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Regulatory Checkpoints
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Moments at which the cell evaluates the results of previous steps
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How do somatic cells divide?
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Mitotically
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Germ Cells
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Cells destined for a specialized role in the production of gametes
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Division 1 of Meiosis
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Parent nucleus divides to form 2 daughter nuclei
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Division II of Meiosis
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Each of the daughter nuclei divide resulting in 4 nuclei
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Prophase 1
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Homologs condense and air, crossing over occurs here
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What are the five subgroups of prophase 1?
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Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Dipotene, Diakinesis
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Leptotene
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Long thin chromosomes begin to thicken
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Zygotene
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Begins as each chromosome seeks out its homologous partner & matching chromosomes becomes zipped together
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Synapsis
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When homologs are aligned together (during zygotene)
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Pachytene
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Begins a the completion of synapsis, Crossing Over
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Bivalent
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Each synapsed chromosome pair (2 chromosomes)
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Recombination Nodules
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Nodules that appear along the synaptonemal complex hat allow paternal and maternal chromatids to exchange parts
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Dipotene
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Chisamata is formed, cell begins to start to pull apart
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Chisamata
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Sites on the bivalent chromosomes where crossing over has occured
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Diakinesis
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Further condensation of the chromatids, nuclear envelope breaks down, microtubules of the spindle apparatus begin to form
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Metaphase 1
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Paired homologs attach to spingle fibers from opposite poles
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Anaphase 1
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Homologs move to opposite spindle pores
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Telophase 1
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Nuclear Envelope reforms
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Meiosis 2
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Sister chromatids separate to produce haploid gametes
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Prophase 2
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Chromosomes condense
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Metaphase 2
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Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate
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Anaphase 2
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Sister chromatids move to opposite spindle poles
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Telophase 2
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Nuclear membranes re-form and cytokinesis follows
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Nondisjunction
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When homologs in a chromosome don't segregate during Meiosis 1 & travel to same pole & become part of the same gamete
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Gametogensis
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The formation of gametes
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Oogonia
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The human ovary
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Oogenesis
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THe process in which diploid germ cells in Oogonia multiply rapidly by mitosis producing large amounts of primary oocytes
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Oocyte
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Female egg
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Sex-limited Traits
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Traits that affect a structure or process that is found in one sex but not the other
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Sex-influence Traits
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Traits that show up in both sexes but expression may differ between the two sexes because of hormonal differences
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Product Rule
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The probability of two or more independent events occurring together is the product of the probabilities that each event will occur by itself
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Sum Rule
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The probability of either of two such mutally exclusive events occuring is the sum of their individual probabilities
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Dihybrid
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An individual that is heterozygous for two genes at the same time
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Parental Types
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3rd generation that ends up looking identical to 1st generation parents
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Recombinant Types
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New phenotypic combinations that have not been seen in 1st generation parents
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The Law of Independent Assortment
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During gamete formation, different pairs of alleles segregate independently of each other
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Phenotypic Ratio between 2 dihybrids
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9:3:3:1
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Pedigree
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A family history represented as an orderly diagram of a family’s relevant genetic features extending back to at least both sets of grandparents, preferably more
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Consanguineous Mating
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Mating between relatives
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Late-Onset Genetic Condition
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A condition in which symptoms are not present at birth and manifest themselves only later in life
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Multifactorial
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Trait determined by two or more genes
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Incomplete Dominance
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The F1 hybrid resembles neither pure-breeding parent
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Codominance
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The F1 Hybrid exhibits traits of both parents
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What ratio does codominance result in?
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1:2:1
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Complete Dominance
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F1 progeny look like one of the true breeding parents
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What kind of ratio does a complete dominance circumstance result in?
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3:1
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Incomplete Dominance
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Hybrid resemble neither of the parent and thus display neither pure-breeding trait
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What kind of ratio does an incomplete dominance circumstance result in?
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1:2:1
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Dominance Series
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Alleles are listed in order from most dominant to most recessive
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Histocompatibilty Antigens
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Facilitate a proper immune response that destroys intruders while leaving the body's own tissues intact
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Mutations
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Chance alterations of genetic material that arise spontaneously in nature
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Allele Frequency
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The percentage of the total number of gene copies in each allele of the gene
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Wild-Type Allele
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The most common allele in a population
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Mutant Allele
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A rare allele in the same population
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Monomorphic
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A gene with only one common wild-type allele
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Polymorphic
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Genes that have more than one common allele
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Pleiotrophy
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The phenomenon of a single gene determing a number of distinct and seemingly unrelated characteristics
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Recessive Lethal Allele
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An allele that negatively affects the survival of a homozygote
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Epistasis
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A gene interaction in which the effects of an allele at one gene hides the effect of alleles at another gene
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Recessive Epistasis
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The masking phenomenon is due to the recessive allele
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Dominant Epistasis
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Epistasis caused by the dominant allele
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Heterogeneous Trait
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A mutation at any one of a number of genes can give rise to the same phenotype
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Complementation Test
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A natural test in which what appears to be an identical recessive phenotype arises in two separate breeding lines. Mating between two affected individuals from two separate lines who whether or not the gene is the same in both cases or if the mutant gene is different
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What are factors that alter the phenotypic expression of genotype?
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Modifier Genes, the environment, chance
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Penetrance
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How many members of a population with a particular genotype show the expected phenotype (can be 100% or incomplete)
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Expressivity
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The degree or intensity with which a particular genotype is expressed in a phenotype
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Conditional Lethal
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Allele tht is lethal only under certain conditions
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Permissive Conditions
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The range of temperatures under which an organism remains viable
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Restrictive Conditions
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Lethal temperatures
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Phenocopy
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A change in phenotype due to exposure to chemical or other environmental agents
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Chi-Square Test
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The probability test that measures the "goodness of fit" between an observation and the predicted results
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BIOL 3333: EXAM 4