PSY-P 101: CHPATER 8 & 9 MEMORY & LANGUAGE
71 Cards in this Set
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memory
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the capacity to preserve and recover information
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encoding
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the processes that determine and control how memories are formed
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storage
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the processes that determine and control how memories are stored and kept over time
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retrieval
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the processes that determine and control how memories are recovered and translated into performance
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iconic memory
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the system that produces and stores visual sensory memories
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echoic memory
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the system that produces and stores auditory sensory memories
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rehearsal
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a strategic process that helps to maintain short-term memories indefinitely through the use of internal repetition
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memory span
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the number of items that can be recalled from short-term memory in their proper presentation order on half of the tested memory trials
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chunking
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a short-term memory strategy that involves rearranging incoming information into meaningful or familiar patterns
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long-term memory
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the system used to maintain information for extended periods of time
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episodic memory
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a memory for a particular event, or episode, that happened to you personally, such as remembering what you ate for breakfast this morning or where you went on vacation last year.
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semantic memory
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knowledge about the world, stored as facts that makes little or no reference to one's personal experience
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procedural memory
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knowledge about how to do things, such as riding a bike or swinging a golf club
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elaboration
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the encoding process in which you actively relate new information to the already-stored contents of long-term memory
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distinctiveness
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refers to how unique or different a memory record is from other things in memory
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visual imagery
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the processes used to construct an internal visual image
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distributed practice
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spacing the repetitions of to-be-remembered information over time
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primacy effect
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the better memory of items near the beginning of a memorized list
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mnemonic devices
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special mental tricks that help people think about material in ways that improve later memory. these tricks require the use of visual imagery.
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method of loci
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a mnemonic device in which you choose some pathway, such as moving through the rooms in your house, and then form visual of the to-be-remembered items sitting in locations along the pathway.
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peg-word method
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a mnemonic device in which you form visual images connecting to-be-remembered items with retrieval cues
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flashbulb memories
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rich memory records of the circumstances surrounding emotionally significant and surprising events
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free recall
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a testing condition in which a person is asked to remember information without explicit retrieval cues.
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cued recall
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a testing condition in which people are given an explicit retrieval cue to help them remember
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transfer-appropriate processing
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the idea that the likelihood of correct retrieval is increased if a person uses the same kind of mental processes during testing that he or she used during encoding
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schema
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an organized knowledge structure in long-term memory
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implicit memory
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remembering that occurs in the absence of conscious awareness or willful intent
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explicit memory
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conscious, willful remembering
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forgetting
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the loss of accessibility to previously stored material
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decay
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the proposal that memories are forgotten or lost spontaneously with the passage of time
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retroactive interference
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a process in which the formation of new memories hurts the recovery of old memories
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proactive interference
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a process in which old memories interfere with the establishment and recovery of new memories
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repression
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a defense mechanism that individuals use, unknowingly, to push threatening thoughts, memories, and feelings out of conscious awareness.
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amnesia
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forgetting that is caused by physical problems in the brain, such as those induced by injury or disease
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retrograde amnesia
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memory loss for events that happened prior to the point of brain injury
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anterograde amnesia
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memory loss for events that happen after the point of physical injury
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thinking
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the processes that underlie the mental manipulation of knowledge, usually in an attempt to reach a goal or solve a problem
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grammar
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the rules of language that enable the communicator to combine arbitrary symbols to convey meaning
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phonology
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rules governing how sounds should be combined to make words in a language
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syntax
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rules governing how words should be combined to form sentences
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semantics
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the rules used in language to communicate meaning
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phonemes
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the smallest significant sound units in speech
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morphemes
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the smallest units in a language that carry meaning
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surface structure
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the literal ordering of words in a sentence
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deep structure
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the underlying representation of meaning in a new sentence
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pragmatics
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the practical knowledge used to comprehend the intentions of a speaker and to produce an effective response
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category
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a class of objects (people, places, or things) that most people agree belong together.
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defining features
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the set of features necessary to make objects acceptable members of a category
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family resemblance
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the core features that category members share; a given member of the category may have some but not necessarily all of these features
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prototype
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the best or most representative member of a category
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category exemplars
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specific examples of category members that are stored in long-term memory
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basic-level categories
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the level in a category hierarchy that provides the most useful and predictive information
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well-defined problem
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a problem with a well-stated goal, a clear starting point, and a relatively easy way to tell when a solution has been obtained
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ill-defined problem
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a problem, such as the search for "happiness" that has no well-stated goal, no clear starting point, and no mechanism for evaluating progress.
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functional fixedness
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the tendency to see objects, and their functions, in certain fixed and typical ways
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algorithms
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step-by-step rules or procedures that, if applied correctly, guarantee a problem solution
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heuristics
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the rules of thumb we use to solve problems; can be applied quickly, but does not guarantee that a solution will be found
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means-end analysis
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a problem-solving heuristic that involves devising actions, or means, that reduce the distance between the current starting point and the desired end or goal state
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working backward
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a problem-solving heuristics that involves starting at the goal state and moving back towards the starting point to see how the goal state can be reached
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searching for analogies
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a problem-solving heuristic that involves trying to find a connection between the current problem and some previous problem you have solved successfully
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mental set
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the tendency to rely on well-established strategies when attempting to solve problems
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insight
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the moment when a problem solution seems to pop suddenly into one's mind.
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decision making
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the thought processes involved in evaluating and choosing from among a set of alternatives; it usually involves some kind of risk
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framing
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the way in which the alternatives in a decision making situation are structured
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confirmation bias
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the tendency to seek out and use information that supports and confirms a prior decision or belief
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belief persistence
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in decision making, the tendency to cling to initial beliefs when confronted with disconfirming beliefs
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representativeness heuristic
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the tendency to make decisions based on an alternative's similarity, in relation to an ideal. For example, people decide whether a sequence is random based on how irregular the sequence looks
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availability heuristic
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the tendency to base estimates on the ease with which examples come to mind
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sensory memory
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an exact replica of an environmental message, which usually lasts for a second or less
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short-term memory
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a limited-capacity system that we use to hold information after it has been analyzed for periods lasting less than a minute or two.
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primacy effect
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the better memory of items near the beginning of a memorized list
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Study Guide: Final Exam